“…In previous urban population density studies, shopping facilities, catering facilities, entertainment facilities, hotel accommodation facilities, and daily life service facilities are widely used factors (Li et al, 2019;Yang et al, 2021;Chen et al, 2022;Li et al, 2022). Subway, taxis, and other modes of transportation, which are components of transportation accessibility, are almost mandatory factors in all studies on population density distribution and spatial vitality (Yue et al, 2021;Guo et al, 2022). Scholars have also adopted elements such as spatial landscape and cultural attractions (Lin et al, 2021;Niu et al, 2021;Xu and Chen, 2021).…”