Spatiotemporal Distribution and Analysis of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in the Environmental Systems: A Review

Abstract

In recent times, there has been a cumulative apprehension regarding organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) owing to their high manufacturing and usage after brominated flame retardants were strictly regulated and banned from being distributed and used in many countries. OPFRs are known as the main organic pollutants in the terrestrial and aquatic environment. They are very dangerous to humans, plants and animals. They are also carcinogenic and some have been implicated in neurodevelopmental and fertility challenges. OPFRs are distributed into the environment through a number of processes, including the usage, improper disposal and production of materials. The solid phase extraction (SPE) method is suggested for the extraction of OPFRs from water samples since it provides high quality recoveries ranging from 67% to 105% and relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 20%. In the same vein, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is highly advocated for the extraction of OPFRs from sediment/soil. Recoveries in the range of 78% to 105% and RSDs ranging from 3% to 8% have been reported. Hence, it is a faster method of extraction for solid samples and only demands a reduced amount of solvent, unlike other methods. The extract of OPFRs from various matrices is then followed by a clean-up of the extract using a silica gel packed column followed by the quantification of compounds by gas chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (GC–MS) or a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). In this paper, different analytical methods for the evaluation of OPFRs in different environmental samples are reviewed. The effects and toxicities of these contaminants on humans and other organisms are also discussed.

An overview of the (eco)toxicological effects of flame retardants emerging in water and sediment

“…However, that knowledge allows us to predict and explain their occurrence in different ecosystems. Chemical structure, molecular mass, solubility in water, vapour pressure, or sub-cooled liquid vapour pressure are important properties in terms of a profound understanding of their occurrence and concentration in water, soil, and atmosphere (Bika et al, 2022;Kung et al, 2022). However, one of the most important characteristics is the octanol-water partition coefficient (K OW ) value.…”

Flame Retardant Coatings: Additives, Binders, and Fillers

“…Hence, it renders these materials nonemitting into the atmosphere when applied. In addition, most additives used in flame retardant systems have been approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) due to their low environmental impact [ 142 , 143 , 144 ]. Below are some promising additives that can be used to formulate an effective intumescent flame retardant coating system.…”

Organophosphate Triesters and Their Transformation Products in Sediments of Mangrove Wetlands in the Beibu Gulf, South China Sea

“…With the ban on traditional brominated flame retardants, the production and usage of OPEs have continually increased during recent years [2,3]. Since OPEs are simply added into the materials instead of chemically bonded, they tend to release into the environment during the production and usage process easily [1,4,5]. Consequently, there is growing evidence of high levels of OPEs pollution in coastal environments worldwide [6][7][8].…”

“…Consequently, there is growing evidence of high levels of OPEs pollution in coastal environments worldwide [6][7][8]. Moreover, toxic effects of OPEs on humans and biota, such as neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity, endocrine disrupting activity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, have also been reported [5,[9][10][11][12]. Studies on the pollution of OPEs in aquatic environments have attracted more and more interest in recent years [1,13].…”