Specialization in offending: A comprehensive review of criminological theories and empirical studies

Abstract

Policy makers, legislators, and law enforcement practitioners generally believe that criminals do specialize in offending. However, they commit only one type of crime throughout their criminal career. Criminal laws, crime prevention programs, and criminal investigation techniques have been shaped by this assumption. On the other hand, a perennial debate amongst criminologists and researchers shows whether criminals have a tendency of specialization or versatility. Some theorists claim that there is one underlying reason for deviance; thus, offenders commit all available crimes. Whereas, others argue that offenders commit crimes for different reasons and needs. As a result, they have a tendency of specialization. Conversely, developmental criminologists claim both specialization and versatility. In this paper, we will start by explaining the theoretical assumptions and results of empirical studies regarding the effects of age, gender, peers, and crime types on offence specialization. Later, we will discuss the assumptions of the theories in the light of the related researches. Finally, we will present various policy and the research recommendations of this study.

Who commits what? An evaluation of offenders convicted of domestic violence and sexual abuse in Iowa

“…Hence, it can be argued that measures taken to enhance public safety, such as the Sex Offender Registry, may not be as effective because most sex offenders are not reported to authorities and/or caught. Additionally, to those that are convicted, the registry could also be more detrimental to offenders than helpful as most of them-who may never sexually offend again-are left with a life of restrictions and an inability to reintegrate into society properly (Eker & Mus, 2016;Jennings, Zgoba & Tewksbury, 2012;Levenson & Cotter, 2005;Levenson, University & Hern, 2007). Therefore, recommending that measures should be taken to shift the focus of treatment to a more generalized, violent offenders approach (Simon, 1997a, p. 43).…”

“…However, what has had continual support is that offender's prior histories tend to predict their future offenses. Therefore, regardless of if these offenders commit domestic and sexual violence acts concurrently or not, the research is still mixed on if offenders specialize in either violent or non-violent crimes in general (Eker & Mus, 2016, p. 2307).…”

“…Policies such as mandatory minimums for habitual domestic violence offenders and sex offender registries and restrictions, tend to fall in line with the system's belief that criminals do specialize in offending. In fact, some laws, prevention programs, treatments, and even criminal investigations employ or embrace the idea that the offenders they are dealing with are only committing one type of crime throughout their criminal career (Eker & Mus, 2016, p. 2296. However, whether this is true or not has been a debate among criminologists for quite some time as empirical evidence has been found in support of both specialization and versatility.…”

“…"The notion of specialization in criminal offending refers to the extent to which an offender tends to repeat the same specific offense or offense type on successive criminal events" (Eker & Mus, 2016, p. 2295. Additionally, other researchers have defined criminal specialization "by [an offenders'] preferences for a specific offense or specific categories of offenses grouped by researchers a priori, or what Cohen (1986) referred to as 'offense clusters'" (Blumstein, Cohen, Das & Moitra, 1988;Deane, Armstrong & Felson, 2005;DeLisi, Beaver, Wright, Wright, Vaughn & Trulson, 2011;Farrington, 1986;Kempf 1987;Lattimore, Visher & Linster, 1994;MacDonald et al, 2014, p. 44;Osgood & Schreck, 2007;Piquero, Paternoster, Mazerolle, Brame & Dean, 1999;Raudenbush, Christopher & Sampson, 2003;Tracy & Kempf-Leonard, 1996;Wolfgang, Figlio & Sellin, 1972).…”

“…To begin, researchers suggest that support for this belief can be found when looking at older offenders. As offenders age out, they tend to commit fewer crimes and specialize in the types of crimes they still commit (Eker & Mus, 2016, p. 2296.…”