Stages and Levels of Automation: An Integrated Meta-analysis

Abstract

Function allocation between human and automation can be represented in terms of the stages & levels taxonomy proposed by Parasuraman, Sheridan & Wickens (2000). Higher degrees of automation (DOA) are achieved both by later stages (e.g., automation decision aiding rather than diagnostic aiding) and higher levels within stages (e.g. executing a choice unless vetoed, versus offering the human several choices). A meta analysis based on data of 14 experiments examines the mediating effects of DOA on routine system performance, performance when the automation fails, workload and situation awareness. The effects of DOA on these four measures are summarized by level of statistical significance. We found: (1) an inverse relationship between routine performance and workload as automation is introduced and DOA increases. (2) a weak positive relationship between routine performance and failure performance, as mediated by DOA. (3) A strong mediating role of situation awareness in improving both routine and failure performance.

Human Performance Consequences of Automated Decision Aids in States of Sleep Loss

“…The present study extends this line of research by investigating how the interaction with automated aids differing in degree of automation (Wickens et al, 2010) is affected by an impairment of the functional state of operators. The model used for this research includes effects of sleep loss induced by a waking phase of 20 hr or more on the interaction with automated aids in a supervisory process control task.…”

Automation in Surgery

“…The latter can include issues of overreliance on the automated functions, issues of workload shifts associated with managing an additional system, and issues of out-of-loop unfamiliarity, that is, difficulties in developing and maintaining an appropriate level of situation awareness because of a reduced active involvement in the automated processes (Ferris, Sarter, & Wickens, 2010). A generic framework model of types and levels of automation that can be used to classify different automated systems and to evaluate their consequences for human performance has been introduced by Parasuraman, Sheridan, and Wickens (2000;Wickens, Huiyang, Santamaria, Sebok, & Sarter, 2010). Referring to this model, pointer-based IGN systems represent a comparatively low degree of automated assistance that just partially supports the acquisition and integration of visual information from the operative site and leaves any further decision making and implementation of actions completely with the surgeon ).…”

Understanding Automated Financial Trading Using Work Domain Analysis

“…The above facts of AT related issues seem to fit with the "conventional wisdom" statement in the automation literature (Wickens, Li, Santamaria, Sebok & Sarter, 2010). These issues can be described as automation causing degraded performance under disturbance or non-routine conditions.…”