State, Market and Social Inequalities: A Study of Primary Education in the Indian Punjab

Abstract

The article, using the National Sample Survey (henceforth NSS) data, establishes that the non-state providers, particularly the private-unaided sub-sector, have predominantly captured the primary school education market in Punjab. The predominance of these schools in the state has made the primary education a tradable commodity, catering to the demands based on the ability of the households to pay. In such a situation, the type of school (government or private) the households in the state are able to choose for their wards, particularly at rural level, is largely contingent on their caste and gender, which clearly shows that a new form of social inequality has emerged in Punjab (given not only that the learning environment in the government schools is perceived to be of formidable concern, but these schools are also non-English medium). The article suggests that without a properly functional state-financed school education system, the market forces will continue to strengthen the prevailing social inequalities.

Household Expenditure on Secondary Education in Haryana (India): Levels, Patterns and Determinants

“…Besides, in certain regions in India, the scheduled tribe communities tend to have least gender discrimination in allocating household resources on education, and this is most possibly due to a matriarchal structure followed in them (Saha, 2013). The phenomenon of upper caste hegemony in household expenditure on education and better educational outcomes is well documented in literature (Choudhury, 2020; Gill, 2017a, 2017b; Khanal, 2018). Similarly, the significant and positive bearing of parental educational accomplishments on private educational spending is a near-universal conclusion (Huy, 2012; Lazear & Michael, 1988; Saha, 2013).…”

“…The focus here is to develop a conceptual framework to explain the issue of household investment in education in India and its implications for the development of the education sector in the country. There are several studies (e.g., Choudhury & Kumar, 2021; Gill, 2017a, 2019; Schroeder et al, 2015; Tilak, 1996, 2002) which reveal that Indian households’ invest heavily in the education of their offspring. Interestingly, households not only forego their consumption expenditure to provide education for their wards, rather they have also expressed their willingness to borrow money to provide for this purpose (Tsui & Rich, 2002; Yueh, 2006).…”

‘Marketization’ of higher education in Peru: Who attends private institutions and what are the perceived advantages (disadvantages)?

“…Evidence from Low and Middle‐Income Countries (LMICs) is mostly focused on primary and secondary education, and possibly increasing educational inequality (Gill, 2017; Hsieh & Urquiola, 2006). But marketization has expanded throughout educational systems and is becoming increasingly common in higher education given its flexibility and faster adaptation to changes.…”

Understanding Parental School Choice in Varied Socio-economic Milieus: A Case Study of a Village in Punjab

“…It is important to mention that policy and perspectives (for example, Kothari Commission Report, 1964–66, National Policy on Education, 2020) have recommended that this proportionate budgetary allocation should be at least 6% of the GDP. The multiple factors like poor learning environment culminating into the sub-standard quality of education and the non-availability of English medium education in government schools led to the creation of a space which was filled by private schools (Gill, 2017). Punjab stands 6th in terms of highest private enrolment in India with 51% students studying in unaided private schools (DISE 2016–17).…”