Stiffness as a control factor for object manipulation

Abstract

We act on the world by producing forces that move objects. During manipulation, force is exerted with the expectation that an object will move in an intended manner. This prediction is a learned coordination between force and displacement. Mechanically, impedance is a way to describe this coordination. As an efficient control strategy, object interaction could be anticipated by setting impedance before the hand moves the object. We examined this possibility with a paradigm in which subjects moved a handle to a specific target position along a track. The handle was locked in place until the subject exerted enough force to cross a specific threshold; then the handle was abruptly released and could move along the track. We hypothesized that this ballistic-release task would encourage subjects to modify their arm impedance in anticipation of the upcoming movement. If we consider the handle as an object, this paradigm loosely approximates the uncertainty encountered at the end of a reach when contacting a fixed object. We found that one component of arm impedance, stiffness, varied in a way that matched the behavioral demands of the task and we were able to dissociate stiffness from changes in force and displacement. We also found separate components of muscle activity that corresponded to stiffness and to changes in force. Our results show that subjects used a robust and efficient strategy to coordinate force and displacement by modulating muscle activity in a way that was behaviorally relevant in the task. New & NoteworthyThe arm can behave like a spring, suggesting the concept of exerting force to move an object by selecting a spring of a certain length and stiffness that, respectively, depend on the movement and force requirements of the task. We show that these spring-like characteristics describe the strategy used to arrest a pre-loaded handle. These results extend our understanding of the arm's spring-like behavior to include force and movement constraints, important factors for object interaction.

Maintaining arm control during self‐triggered and unpredictable unloading perturbations

“…Kennedy and Schwartz () report preliminary findings from a task which is similar to ours in its use of a self‐triggered unloading perturbation. Their primary analysis relates to modulation of co‐contraction to attain various target positions following the unloading perturbations, and it is unclear whether the control strategy they report applies to our task.…”

“…Some studies have used unloading events triggered by an experimenter to evoke postural perturbations (Angel et al., ; Lowrey et al., ) or investigate muscle characteristics under do‐not‐intervene instructions (Archambault, Mihaltchev, Levin, & Feldman, ). Other studies have used self‐triggered unloading perturbations to investigate preparation for expected perturbations to the upper limb (Johannson & Westling, ; Kennedy & Schwartz, ; Lum et al., ) or whole body (Aruin & Latash, ), or to trigger perturbations with unknown directions (Piscitelli, Falaki, Solnik, & Latash, ).…”

Maintaining arm control during self-triggered and unpredictable unloading perturbations

“…Addressing this issue would require systematic coverage of many more upper-limb muscles. Kennedy and Schwartz (2018) report preliminary findings from a task which is similar to ours in its use of a self-triggered unloading perturbation. Their primary analysis relates to modulation of co-contraction to attain various target positions following the unloading perturbations, and it is unclear whether the control strategy they report applies to our task.…”

“…Some studies have used unloading events triggered by an experimenter to evoke postural perturbations (Angel et al 1965, Lowrey et al 2019 or investigate muscle characteristics under do-not-intervene instructions (Archambault et al 2005). Other studies have used self-triggered unloading perturbations to investigate preparation for expected perturbations to the upper limb (Lum et al 1992, Johansson & Westling 1988, Kennedy & Schwartz 2018 or whole body (Aruin & Latash 1995), or to trigger perturbations with unknown directions (Piscitelli et al 2017).…”

Distributed processing of movement signaling

“…We used a ballistic-release task to determine whether a similar strategy-the presetting of mechanical impedance-could be used to control the arm when feedback of the movement would be ineffective. In an initial study (40), human subjects were seated in front of a computer monitor. They used their right arm to pull a handle along a horizontal track.…”