Strategies in DNA vaccine for melanoma cancer

Abstract

Cancer is considered as one of the leading causes of human death worldwide. According to the National Centre for Health Statistics (NCHS), over 600,000 people have died of cancer just in the United States in 2019. Moreover, the NCHS reported that there will be approximately more than 90,000 new cases of melanoma in situ of the skin in 2020 (Siegel et al., 2019). However, the World Health Organization (WHO) has predicted that these statistics may be changed by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in 2020.According to the WHO, 2 to 3 million cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer and more than 132,000 cases of melanomas are diagnosed annually. It has been estimated that an extra 10 percent decrease in ozone levels could lead to an additional 4,500 cases of melanoma and 300,000 cases of nonmelanoma skin cancers. Melanoma is a serious type of skin malignancies that continue to promote throughout the world especially within the white population of the United States from 1975 to 2013 (Murali et al., 2018). Furthermore, according to the National Cancer Institute reports, more than 91,000 new cases of melanoma cancer were accounted for in the United States in 2018 and more than one million Americans are living with melanoma cancer.Skin cancer is divided into two main types: nonmelanoma (keratinocyte cancer) and melanoma skin cancer. The keratinocyte cancer results from skin cells named keratinocytes and rarely spreads to other parts of the body. Keratinocyte cancer has two main subtypes including squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and basal cell carcinoma (BCC). SCC is most common in those areas of the body that are frequently exposed to the sunlight; it also develops in the areas that do not receive sun exposure such as genitals, lips, and the mouth. BCC

Toll-like receptor 9 agonists and combination therapies: strategies to modulate the tumour immune microenvironment for systemic anti-tumour immunity

“…Vaccine platforms include DNA [77], RNA [78], peptides [79] or direct use of DC cells [80], promoting DC activation, and ultimately generating an anti-tumour immune response and immune memory. Factors influencing vaccine efficacy include antigen quality, DC activation, whether induces strong and sustained CD4 + T helper cells and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses, TME infiltration and persistence and maintenance of the immune response [81].…”

Bacterial outer membrane vesicles as a candidate tumor vaccine platform

“…These vaccines rely on a gene carrier to introduce an encoded exogenous antigen into body cells, and the endogenous expression system of those cells generates the corresponding antigen and then induces a specific cellular immune response to eliminate cancer cells (7). DNA vaccines are essentially bacterial plasmids encoding tumor antigens, which contain two origins of replication: a prokaryotic origin for replication in the bacterium and a eukaryotic origin for replication in the vaccinated host (8). DNA vaccines are able to migrate to the nucleus for replication, transcription, and antigen production, and then stimulate the immune system by interacting with antigens produced on the host cell surface and their presentation on MHC class I and class II complexes (8,9).…”

“…DNA vaccines are essentially bacterial plasmids encoding tumor antigens, which contain two origins of replication: a prokaryotic origin for replication in the bacterium and a eukaryotic origin for replication in the vaccinated host (8). DNA vaccines are able to migrate to the nucleus for replication, transcription, and antigen production, and then stimulate the immune system by interacting with antigens produced on the host cell surface and their presentation on MHC class I and class II complexes (8,9). DNA vaccines usually utilize a plasmid produced in Escherichia coli as the expression vector and are delivered by intramuscular injection, which can not only induce humoral immunity but also promote the proliferation and differentiation of T cells, thereby leading to cellular immune response (10).…”

Adjuvant effect of IRES-based single-stranded RNA on melanoma immunotherapy

“…In this study, the cricket paralysis virus internal ribosome entry site (CrPV IRES )-ssRNA was established and administered to mice challenged with murine melanoma cells. The National Center for Health Statistics reported that approximately 90,000 cases of melanoma occur annually in the USA [38]. Melanoma is the most common type of skin cancer, which occurs in melanocytes that produce the melanin responsible for variations in skin color [39].…”