Strategy of Nematophagous Fungi in Determining the Activity of Plant Parasitic Nematodes and Their Prospective Role in Sustainable Agriculture

Abstract

In this review, we supply a framework for the importance of nematophagous fungi (nematophagous fungi [NF]) and their role in agricultural ecosystems. We characterize the taxonomy, diversity, ecology, and type of NF, depending on their interaction with plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs). We described potential mechanisms of NF in the control of PPNs, the efficiency and methods of utilization, and the use of nematicides in sustainable agriculture. We explain the utilization of NF in nanotechnology as a new approach. NF are significant in the soil for having the effective potential for use in sustainable agriculture. These types of fungi belong to wide taxa groups, such as Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and other groups. Diverse NF are available in different kinds of soil, especially in soils that contain high densities of nematodes. There is a relationship between the environment of nematodes and NF. NF can be divided into two types according to the mechanisms that affect nematodes. These types are divided into direct or indirect effects. The direct effects include the following: ectoparasites, endoparasites, cyst, or egg parasites producing toxins, and attack tools as special devices. However, the indirect effect comprises two groups: paralyzing toxins and the effect on the life cycle of nematodes. We explained the molecular mechanisms for determining the suitable conditions in brief and clarified the potential for increasing the efficacy of NF to highly impact sustainable agriculture in two ways: directly and indirectly.

Biological and proteomic analysis of a new isolate of the nematophagous fungus lecanicillium sp

“…Various studies carried out by several investigators like Goettel et al [ 18 ] and Al-Ani et al [ 19 ] revealed that Lecanicillium spp. has higher levels of egg parasitism than many other fungal species.…”

“…has higher levels of egg parasitism than many other fungal species. The ovicidal potentiality may be referred to that conidia and hypha of nematophagous fungal taxa can easily penetrate the eggs and kill the juveniles [ 19 – 21 ].…”

Nematophagous Fungi: A Review of Their Phosphorus Solubilization Potential

“…NF can be used in agriculture through the massive production of infective spores or through formulations that improve growth, viability, and efficacy [ 45 ]. They use several mechanisms of recognition, signaling, differentiation, and penetration of the cuticle or egg shell of nematodes through mechanical and enzymatic actions [ 46 ].…”

The Fight against Plant-Parasitic Nematodes: Current Status of Bacterial and Fungal Biocontrol Agents

“…Microbes developed a wide array of strategies to target both motile and sedentary PPNs life stages. Through specialized structures, such as constricting rings, three-dimensional hyphae networks, and adhesive spores, for example, predatory fungi can trap nematodes and prevent them from escaping [ 21 , 22 ] ( Figure 1 ). Opportunistic saprotrophic fungi attack nonmotile stages, like eggs, cysts, and Meloidogyne females [ 23 ].…”