Stress, Social Supports, and Adaptational Patterns in Hmong Refugee Families

Constructing “Hmong American Youth”: A Critical Discourse Analysis of 25 Years of Academic Literature on Hmong American Youth

“…This notion of Hmong as other is used to explain why Hmong have more challenges in adapting to the United States For example, Hirayama and Hirayama (1988) wrote, "Unlike the majority of Vietnamese who arrived about the same time as the Hmong but who have since left refugee status, many Hmong are still struggling" (p. 94). Yet in their discussion of their findings, Hirayama and Hirayama (1988) described Hmong as highly organized .…”

“…Yet in their discussion of their findings, Hirayama and Hirayama (1988) described Hmong as highly organized . .…”

Mental Health Status of the Hmong Americans in 2011: Three Decades Revisited

“…Westermeyer (1986) also reported that during this period, subjects with diagnostic documentation were more likely to receive county-funded assistance as compared to the other subjects who did not have mental disorders (42% vs. 20%); individuals with chronic maladjustment disorders (47%) were more likely to be on county-funded assistance programs than subjects with other diagnoses (31%); and in ongoing studies, the Hmong participants' diagnostic documentation rose a whole percentage point, from 42% in 1986 to 43% in 1988 (see Table 2). Hirayama and Hirayama (1988) sampled 25 head-of-household Hmong men, out of a population of approximately 250, in the Memphis, Tennessee, area. That study examined participants' stress levels and their linkage to social support systems.…”

“…After the Communists expanded their efforts, the Hmong sought refuge and headed toward the safer grounds of Thailand. On arrival at the refugee camps, they endured psychological distress from the unsanitary conditions (Ying & Akutsu, 1997), lived in confined housing quarters that were secured by barbed-wire fences (Hamilton-Merrit, 1993;Hirayama & Hirayama, 1988;Nicholson, 1997;Ying & Akutsu, 1997), and were visibly besieged by Thai soldiers around the clock (Detzner, Senyurekli, & Xiong, 2008). Positive moments of change came when relocation efforts assisted the refugees in resettling into other countries.…”

“…Positive moments of change came when relocation efforts assisted the refugees in resettling into other countries. Yet on the contrary, research has found that these refugees and their respective cohorts did not experience a smooth and thorough transition in the host countries (see Hirayama & Hirayama, 1988;Mollica et al, 1987;Nicholson, 1997;Westermeyer et al, 1989). Through a generational view, Lee (2007) collected data from firstgeneration Hmong college students, who were children of these Hmong refugees, to validate that the maladjustments and mental health issues have clearly transmitted throughout the generations.…”