“…In animal research, the underrepresentation of females in study samples is ubiquitous (see Becker et al, 2005;Beery and Zucker, 2011;Hughes, 2007), due in part to the widespread belief that the 4-day estrous cycle of female rodents renders them fundamentally more variable, and therefore less reliable subjects, than their male counterparts (Prendergast et al, 2014). Similarly, ethic differences in HPPA function and cognitive outcomes has been indicated (Demirovic et al, 2003;DeSantis et al, 2015;Gurland et al, 1999;Howell et al, 2017;Jackson et al, 2010;Palmer-Bacon et al, 2020;Wong, 2019) yet the interventional community has been slow to consider the implications of such findings; underscored by this review where studies were primarily conducted in westernised, educated, and wealthy populations (see Tables 1& 2). Future interventional work, both pharmacological and non-pharmacological, would benefit through direct assessment of sex-/ gender-, race-/ethnic-group differences in HPPA and/or cognitive outcomes in more socio-economically diverse human population samples.…”