“…In situations where high affinity antibodies are not available or when detection of classes of toxins is desired, nonantibody-based assays have been utilized in fieldable biosensors [41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54]. Biosensor-based detection of neurotoxins has been accomplished using the enzyme acetylcholinesterase [42,47,49,53,54], acetylcholine receptors [41,43], and networks of cultured neural cells [52].…”