Stuck in a lockdown: Dreams, bad dreams, nightmares, and their relationship to stress, depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

Background An upsurge in dream and nightmare frequency has been noted since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and research shows increases in levels of stress, depression and anxiety during this time. Growing evidence suggests that dream content has a bi-directional relationship with psychopathology, and that dreams react to new, personally significant and emotional experiences. The first lockdown experience was an acute event, characterized by a combination of several unprecedent factors (new pandemic, threat of disease, global uncertainty, the experience of social isolation and exposure to stressful information) that resulted in a large-scale disruption of life routines. This study aimed at investigating changes in dream, bad dream and nightmare recall; most prevalent dream themes; and the relationship between dreams, bad dreams, nightmares and symptoms of stress, depression and anxiety during the first COVID-19 lockdown (April-May 2020) through a national online survey. Methods 968 participants completed an online survey. Dream themes were measured using the Typical Dreams Questionnaire; stress levels were measured by the Cohen’s Perceived Stress Scale; symptoms of anxiety were assessed by Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) scale; and symptoms of depression were assessed using the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology. Results 34% (328) of participants reported increased dream recall during the lockdown. The most common dream themes were centered around the topics of 1) inefficacy (e.g., trying again and again, arriving late), 2) human threat (e.g., being chased, attacked); 3) death; and 4) pandemic imagery (e.g., being separated from loved ones, being sick). Dream, bad dream and nightmare frequency was highest in individuals with moderate to severe stress levels. Frequency of bad dreams, nightmares, and dreams about the pandemic, inefficacy, and death were associated with higher levels of stress, as well as with greater symptoms of depression and anxiety. Conclusions Results support theories of dream formation, environmental susceptibility and stress reactivity. Dream content during the lockdown broadly reflected existential concerns and was associated with increased symptoms of mental health indices.

The Oneiric Activity during and after the COVID-19 Total Lockdown in Italy: A Longitudinal Study

“…Previous studies have highlighted that the pandemic had an influence on dream and nightmare contents [ 18 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Here, we found that, despite a substantial stability in the most frequently reported dream themes, only the frequency of specific dream contents was reduced in PL.…”

“…Therefore, it is plausible that the selective decreased frequency of specific dream contents at PL observed in the present study reflects a reduced emotional charge of specific concerns and personal meanings associated with the experience of home confinement during TL. Indeed, two of these themes (being frozen with fright, being half awake and paralyzed in bed) can be considered the expression of a general topic of paralysis [ 30 ] associated with a fearful condition: one (being isolated/locked up/shut down) seems strictly coherent with the TL experience, one (war) appears evocative of an exceptional and dangerous context, and three (being in crowded places, travelling, loved ones) concern objects and experiences that were strongly limited during TL. Overall, such themes may represent specific lockdown-related topics.…”

“…Several studies conducted in different countries found pandemic-related increases in dream and nightmare recall frequency [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Furthermore, changes in the qualitative features of dreams [ 19 , 22 , 23 ] and pandemic-related dream contents [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ] have been described. Different factors seem to influence specific pandemic-related dream changes [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 28 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], including modifications of the sleep pattern, characteristics of daily experience, emotional status, and sociodemographic variables.…”

Dream Recall Frequency, Lucid Dream Frequency, and Personality During the Covid-19 Pandemic

“…As Covid-19-related worries were not related to dream recall frequency, it is very likely that the subjectively reported increases in dream recall frequency due to the pandemic ( Fränkl et al, 2021 ; Guerrero-Gomez et al, 2021 ; Schredl & Bulkeley, 2020 ; Solomonova et al, 2021 ) might not be explained by direct effects of the pandemic itself on dream life but by indirect effects, for example, changes in sleep behavior due to lock-downs ( Gorgoni et al, 2021 ; Scarpelli et al, 2021 ), e.g., home schooling and home office increased sleep duration in some parts of the population ( Bottary et al, 2020 ) whereas, on the other hand, sleep problems including more frequent nocturnal awakenings were also reported more often during the pandemic ( Dal Santo et al, 2021 ). That is, longer sleep duration ( Schredl & Fulda, 2005 ), on the one hand, and insomnia and frequent nocturnal awakenings ( Schredl et al, 1998 ), on the other hand, are related with higher dream recall frequency.…”

“…The main objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the Big Five personality factors, dream recall frequency, and lucid dream frequency in a new and independent sample. However, as the survey was carried out during the Covid-19 pandemic, we had the opportunity to explore whether the presence and intensity of Covid-19-related anxiety is related to dream recall frequency and/or lucid dream frequency as a substantial number of studies ( Fränkl et al, 2021 ; Guerrero-Gomez et al, 2021 ; Schredl & Bulkeley, 2020 ; Solomonova et al, 2021 ) reported an increased dream recall frequency due to the pandemic in a substantial percentage of the population. For focusing on the main objective of the study, we included this COVID-19 related variable in the regression analysis in order to control for possible confounding effects.…”