Studies on the Growth of Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) 3. Phenology of the Shoot

Abstract

An analysis of shoot extension growth of Rhizophora mangle is presented, based on the continuous observation of a small population over a period of two years. This provides phenological information for a tree which fits the general category of "evergrowing" although in South Florida the climate is distinctly seasonal. Environment has a strong governing influence, but the general progression of events is mediated endogenously. Growth is morphologically non-articulate, without obvious flushes, so that the unit of growth is regarded as the single internode. The apical bud has a uniform construction throughout the year, consisting of three leaf primordia and associated stipules, the expansion of the oldest pair of leaf primordia coinciding with the initiation of a new pair. Consequently environmental control of growth is effected through developmental processes in the apical bud. The rate of leaf expansion and leaf fall is at a peak in summer when temperatures and radiation levels are highest. Leaf fall is closely correlated with leaf expansion so that there is a relatively constant number of leaves on a shoot. However, there is some evidence that propagule abscission also affects leaf fall. All lateral organs (vegetative branches, inflorescences, and suppressed axillary buds) are developed within the apical bud, the types of organ differentiated at any one node apparently depending on plastochron length. This is most evident with regard to precocious (sylleptic) branches which are produced periodically in groups of from one to three. Suppressed axillary buds are very reduced and subject to apical dominance. When released from this. by pruning for example, they can reach a size which permits them to grow out as normal apical buds. Under continued

Reproductive phenology and physiological traits in the red mangrove hybrid complex (Rhizophora mangle and R. racemosa) across a natural gradient of nutrients and salinity

“…The flowering patterns of 32 R. mangle trees in the Pacific coast of Panama indicate that this species flowers throughout the annual cycle (Gill and Tomlinson 1971). This is consistent with observations of R. mangle individuals in the Caribbean and in the Atlantic Ocean basin, although some fluctuations may exist mainly associated with levels of insolation, water balance, and salinity (Gill and Tomlinson 1971;Mehlig 2006;Fernandes 1999;Agraz-Hernández et al 2011;Sánchez-Núñez and Mancera-Pineda 2011). In contrast, reproductive R. racemosa individuals showed a conspicuous peak of inflorescence and propagule production in the dry and in the rainy seasons, respectively (Fig.…”

Hurricane disturbance and recovery of energy balance, CO2 fluxes and canopy structure in a mangrove forest of the Florida Everglades

“…Variable disturbance responses among the dominant species at this site were also noted and may have influenced NEE values. R. mangle, one of the three co-dominant species at the EC site, does not regenerate if the plumular apex is lost or severely damaged as often occurs during disturbance events (Gill and Tomlinson, 1971;Tomlinson, 1986). Crowns from the other two dominant species at the site, L. racemosa and A. germinans, are capable of regenerating from meristem tissue (Snedaker et al, 1992).…”

“…In the mangrove stands of south Florida, leaf production rates are lower during the dry season (Gill and Tomlinson, 1971;ArreolaLizárraga et al, 2004;Parkinson et al, 1999). In addition, leaf longevity increases with time after a hurricane disturbance (Ross et al, 2001).…”

Producción de hojarasca y atributos estructurales del manglar en la Laguna Mecoacán, Golfo de México.

“…Algunos estudios realizados (Gil & Tomlinson, 1971;Williams, Bunt, & Duke, 1981;Shunula & Whittick, 1999;Stela & Salomao, 2009;Sharma, Rafiqul, Analuddin, & Hagihara, 2010) confirman la sincronización estacional muy marcada en la temporada de floración y fructificación con respecto a las variables ambientales de precipitación y nivel de inundación (hidroperíodo). Tal como lo afirma López-Portillo y Ezcurra (2002), la producción de flores del manglar se presenta en los meses más desfavorables y tienen una historia adaptativa que les permite liberar la mayor cantidad de frutos en los meses cuando se tienen los pulsos de inundación que duran hasta enero; condiciones que le permite al manglar implementar la estrategia de dispersión de los frutos y propágulos por medio de la hidrodinámica superficial, esto incluye los patrones de flotación y arraigarse al suelo por medio de raíces (Rabinowitz, 1978).…”