Subcooling Cryogenic Propellants for Long Duration Space Exploration

Mustafi, Shuvo; Canavan, Edgar R.; Johnson, Wesley L.; Kutter, Bernard; Shull, Jeff

doi:10.2514/6.2009-6584

Cited by 12 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 5 publications

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“…However, when the maximum pressure increases, the tank becomes heavier, leading to aircraft performance losses. [131]; simplified process for maintaining the subcooling level through isothermal pressurization and isobaric heating for low-pressure pump inlet requirements.…”

Section: Realistic Tank Conditionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Refueling of LH2 Aircraft—Assessment of Turnaround Procedures and Aircraft Design Implication

et al. 2022

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Green liquid hydrogen (LH2) could play an essential role as a zero-carbon aircraft fuel to reach long-term sustainable aviation. Excluding challenges such as electrolysis, transportation and use of renewable energy in setting up hydrogen (H2) fuel infrastructure, this paper investigates the interface between refueling systems and aircraft, and the impacts on fuel distribution at the airport. Furthermore, it provides an overview of key technology design decisions for LH2 refueling procedures and their effects on the turnaround times as well as on aircraft design. Based on a comparison to Jet A-1 refueling, new LH2 refueling procedures are described and evaluated. Process steps under consideration are connecting/disconnecting, purging, chill-down, and refueling. The actual refueling flow of LH2 is limited to a simplified Reynolds term of v·d=2.35 m2/s. A mass flow rate of 20 kg/s is reached with an inner hose diameter of 152.4 mm. The previous and subsequent processes (without refueling) require 9 min with purging and 6 min without purging. For the assessment of impacts on LH2 aircraft operation, process changes on the level of ground support equipment are compared to current procedures with Jet A-1. The technical challenges at the airport for refueling trucks as well as pipeline systems and dispensers are presented. In addition to the technological solutions, explosion protection as applicable safety regulations are analyzed, and the overall refueling process is validated. The thermodynamic properties of LH2 as a real, compressible fluid are considered to derive implications for airport-side infrastructure. The advantages and disadvantages of a subcooled liquid are evaluated, and cost impacts are elaborated. Behind the airport storage tank, LH2 must be cooled to at least 19K to prevent two-phase phenomena and a mass flow reduction during distribution. Implications on LH2 aircraft design are investigated by understanding the thermodynamic properties, including calculation methods for the aircraft tank volume, and problems such as cavitation and two-phase flows. In conclusion, the work presented shows that LH2 refueling procedure is feasible, compliant with the applicable explosion protection standards and hence does not impact the turnaround procedure. A turnaround time comparison shows that refueling with LH2 in most cases takes less time than with Jet A-1. The turnaround at the airport can be performed by a fuel truck or a pipeline dispenser system without generating direct losses, i.e., venting to the atmosphere.

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Section: Realistic Tank Conditionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Figure 8. Realistic thermodynamic tank conditions adapted from Mustafi et al[131]; simplified process for maintaining the subcooling level through isothermal pressurization and isobaric heating for low-pressure pump inlet requirements.…”

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confidence: 99%

Refueling of LH2 Aircraft—Assessment of Turnaround Procedures and Aircraft Design Implication

et al. 2022

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“…Its characteristics are that liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen were subcooled to 15 and 66.67 K, respectively, in 2 h. The devices obtaining subcooling degree consisted of heat exchangers, compressors, pumps, a skid-mounted rack truck and so on. Through many studies, [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] it can be found that many verifications of subcooled propellants, including large-scale production, storage, transportation, filling and igniting experiments of engine, were conducted by NASA.…”

Section: Analysis Of Application Cases For Many Countriesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Three key aspects of this technology were demonstrated as follows: the feasibility of producing high-volume LO 2 densification, achievement of top-to-bottom recirculation of LO 2 and obtainment of thermal stratification conditions in a flight-weight LO 2 tank using unique processing method. Mustafi et al [7,8] proposed a thermodynamic cryogen subcooler, which provided an effective method for isobaric subcooling of cryogenic propellants on the launch pad with a relative small system. For Ares V launch pad, Johnson et al [9] determined that liquid methane could be densified by subcooling it to 93 K, so as to prevent over-pressurization of the propellant tanks on the lunar surface during 210 days.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Performance evaluation on ground loading systems of cryogenic propellants

Xie

Wang

2017

Asia-Pacific J Chem Eng

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To study and compare the merits and demerits of different ground loading systems for cryogenic propellants, three kinds of schemes have been classified according to their loading status: boiling point loading scheme, subcooled direct loading scheme and subcooled cycled loading scheme. Aiming at the three kinds of schemes mentioned previously, related mathematical models of ground storage tanks, filling pipelines and launch vehicle tanks are established by means of a thermal resistance analysis method, lumped parameter method and one‐dimensional finite difference method. Based on the thermodynamic analysis, a K‐T decision‐making method is adopted to determine the preferred scheme. Meanwhile, application situations of multiple ground loading systems in different countries have been analyzed in detail. The researches show that the boiling point loading scheme is the best choice in the aspect of comprehensive performance. However, the subcooled cycled loading scheme is preferable to the case of payload as design objective for the long‐term development. The classified schemes proposed in this paper reveal the feasibility and practicality in actual application of ground loading systems of cryogenic propellants. The study also provides theoretical basis and technological support to design or improve the ground loading systems of cryogenic propellants in the future. © 2017 Curtin University and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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“…Johnson [5] determined that the LCH4 should be cooled to 93 K from 111 K to extend in-orbit time on the lunar surface. Mustafi [6] explored the beneficial effect of subcooled cryogenic propellants on the launch pad for long-term storage of cryogenic propellants in space. Baik [7] reported that when the liquid hydrogen density increased to 8% and the liquid oxygen density increased to 10%, the gross lift-off weight of a cryogenic rocket could reduce by up to 20%.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Densified Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen as Propulsion Fuel

Xie

Sun

2022

Energies

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Densified liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen is a promising propulsion fuel in the future. In order to systematically demonstrate the benefits and challenges of densified liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen, a transient thermodynamical model considering the heat leakage, temperature rise, engine thrust, pressurization pressure of the tank, and wall thickness of tank is developed in the present paper, and the performance of densified liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen as propulsion fuel is further evaluated in actual application. For liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen tanks at different structural dimensions, the effects of many factors such as temperature rise during propellant ground parking, lift of engine thrust, mass reduction of the tank structure, and extension of spacecraft in-orbit time are analyzed to demonstrate the comprehensive performance of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen after densification. Meanwhile, the problem of subcooling combination matching of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen is proposed for the first time. Combining the fuel consumption and engine thrust lifting, the subcooling combination matching of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen at different mixing ratios and constant mixing ratios are discussed, respectively. The results show that the relative engine thrust enhances by 6.96% compared with the normal boiling point state in the condition of slush hydrogen with 50% solid content and enough liquid oxygen. The in-orbit time of spacecraft can extend about 2–6.5 days and 24–95 days for slush hydrogen with 50% solid content and liquid oxygen in the triple point state in different cryogenic tanks, respectively. Due to temperature rise during parking, the existing adiabatic storage scheme and filling scheme for densification LH2 need to be redesigned, and for densification LO2 are suitable. It is found that there is an optimal subcooling matching relation after densification of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen as propulsion fuel. In other words, the subcooling temperature of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen is not the lower the better, but the matching relationship between LH2 subcooling degree and LO2 subcooling degree needs to be considered at the same time. It is necessary that the LO2 was cooled to 69.2 K and 54.5 K, when the LH2 of 13.9 K and SH2 with 45% was adopted, respectively. This research provides theoretical support for the promotion and application of densification cryogenic propellants.

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Subcooling Cryogenic Propellants for Long Duration Space Exploration

Cited by 12 publications

References 5 publications

Refueling of LH2 Aircraft—Assessment of Turnaround Procedures and Aircraft Design Implication

Refueling of LH2 Aircraft—Assessment of Turnaround Procedures and Aircraft Design Implication

Performance evaluation on ground loading systems of cryogenic propellants

Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Densified Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen as Propulsion Fuel

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