Substituting Whole Wheat Flour with Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan) Flour in Chapati: Effect on Nutritional Characteristics, Color Profiles, and In Vitro Starch and Protein Digestion

Abstract

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.), a potential legume as an economical source of protein, is commonly cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Therefore, pigeon pea may be potentially used as a substitute to improve the nutritional profile of foods. In the present study, the effect of substitution of whole wheat flour (WWF) with 20% and 40% pigeon pea flour (PPF) on the nutritional properties, color profiles, and starch and protein digestibility of chapati was investigated. The results showed that PPF had higher protein content but less carbohydrate than WWF. The protein content of chapati substituted with 20% and 40% PPF increased by 1.18 and 1.34 times, respectively, compared to WWF chapati, along with a marked decrease in carbohydrate content. Analyses further revealed an increase in the lightness and yellowness and a decrease in the redness of the chapati. Furthermore, glucose release from chapati with 20% and 40% PPF under simulated digestion was attenuated, corresponding to decreased hydrolysis and a predicted glycemic index. In the 40% PPF chapati, a significant reduction in slowly digestible starch (SDS) with increased resistant starch (RS) proportions was achieved without altering the effect on rapidly digestible starch (RDS). In addition, the level of amino-group residues was markedly elevated in 20% and 40% PPF substituted chapati compared to WWF chapati. These findings suggest that PPF can serve as a promising plant-based alternative ingredient to improve the nutrient value of chapati by reducing starch and increasing protein digestibility.

Brewers’ Spent Grain: An Unprecedented Opportunity to Develop Sustainable Plant-Based Nutrition Ingredients Addressing Global Malnutrition Challenges

“…To compare, the composition of BSG alongside unmalted barley and some common cereal and legume sources is shown in Figure ; though it should be noted that this is a comparison between a byproduct whose nutritional value has been enhanced by processing and unprocessed cereal and legume raw materials. As most of the starch present in the barley grains is removed during the brewing process, the dietary fiber content of BSG can range from 40 to 50%, ,− significantly higher than that of unmalted barley, wheat, and oat (9–20%) ,− and legume sources including pea (14–21%), , soy bean (21–25%), , and faba bean (11–28%) ,, The main fiber constituent in BSG is hemicellulose which comprises 20–40% of the total composition. , The hemicellulose fraction of BSG primarily consists of arabinoxylan, a dietary fiber which has been linked with potential health benefits such as prebiotic activity, improved glycemic control, and antioxidant activity. ,− Cellulose and lignin are the other abundant polysaccharides in BSG, whose contents can range from 16 to 29%, ,, and 12 to 28%, respectively. ,− β-glucan is also present in low levels, normally in the range of ∼1% w/w …”

Sensory Acceptability of Food Products from Wheat and Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan) Composite Flours in Kenya

“…Upon evaluating chapatti, the respondents similarly indicated that the roasted pigeon flour (20%) composite resulted to too dark, unpleasant color, while precooked one resulted to a nice color. A study on varying substitution levels of wheat flour with pigeon pea flour by Sachanarula et al (2022) reported an increase in lightness and yellowness of chapattis made from wheat-pigeon pea flour blends. In another study (Wani et al, 2016), chapatti prepared from wheat-pulse composite flour showed a significant decrease in color, taste and aroma as well as overall acceptability.…”

“…This substitution of pigeon pea flour in all-wheat flour snacks has produced healthy food products with a low glycemic index that is important in controlling sugar levels in diabetics (Gbenga-Fabusiwa et al, 2019). Substituting whole wheat flour with pigeon pea flour also produced chapatti (an unleavened flat bread) with reduced starch and higher protein digestibility, as well as exhibiting reduced glucose release hence a low glycemic index (Sachanarula et al, 2022).…”

Nutritional Composition, Bioactive Compounds, Food Applications, and Health Benefits of Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.): A Review

“…Several researchers advocate for the use of legume flour as a protein source in bakery products (Eneche 1999). Notably, pigeon pea flour is suitable for applications in food products such as cookies, bread, and chapatis due to its high protein, iron, and phosphorus content (Sachanarula, Chantarasinlapin, and Adisakwattana 2022; Yadav, Yadav, and Kumar 2011). Consequently, it has been recommended for inclusion in school feeding programs and for vulnerable populations in developing nations.…”