Sudan azo dyes and Para Red degradation by prevalent bacteria of the human gastrointestinal tract

Xu, Hanlin; Heinze, Thomas M.; Paine, Donald D.; Cerniglia, Carl E.; Chen, Huizhong

doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2009.06.007

Cited by 85 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 41 publications

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“…246,247 Xu et al demonstrated a variable degree of efficiency in the reduction of Sudan azo dyes and Para Red by 35 prevalent human intestinal microbes in vitro. 248 In contrast, Sudan azo dyes and their metabolites selectively inhibit the growth of some human intestinal microorganisms, 249 which may suggest a potential impact on gut microbiome after long-term exposure. In summary, although there are tantalizing glimpses into the effect of azo dyes on microbes in vitro, more data from animal and human studies are keenly awaited.…”

Section: Journal Of Agricultural and Food Chemistrymentioning

confidence: 99%

Emerging Aspects of Food and Nutrition on Gut Microbiota

He¹,

Marco²,

Slupsky³

2013

J. Agric. Food Chem.

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The human gastrointestinal tract contains a highly complex ecosystem that harbors various microorganisms, which together create a unique environment within each individual. There is growing awareness that dietary habits are one of the essential factors contributing to the microbial diversity and community configuration that ultimately affects human health. From an evolutionary perspective, human dietary history can be viewed as a central factor in the selection of the gut microbial community and stabilization of the mutualistic host−microbial interaction, that together drive host phenotype. Herein, current knowledge concerning the influence of major dietary macrostructure and individual food ingredients is presented. This knowledge will provide perspectives for personalized gut microbiota management and, ultimately, movement toward an era of personalized nutrition and medicine. KEYWORDS: gut microbiome, diet, nutrition, food, colon, dietary fiber ■ INTRODUCTIONWe live in an intimate relationship with microorganisms that are present on the surfaces and cavities of the human body. During birth, or shortly thereafter, microbes from the mother's skin and milk, the air, and inanimate objects enter the virtually germ-free system of the neonate and proliferate to a dramatic extent. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the most densely populated microbial ecosystem of the mammalian host. Bacterial cells are most abundant, but other types of microbes are also present in the GI tract, such as archaea, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. The intestinal lumen alone harbors 10 times more bacterial cells than eukaryotic cells in the entire human body, an amount equivalent to approximately 1 kg of human mass.1 This fact leads us to view ourselves as "superorganisms", being composed of our cells as well as microbial cells that are dependent on each another for survival. 2Food is a major source of energy that promotes growth and development, immunity, and tissue repair, as well as homeostatic regulation. It is also an important energy source for gut microbiota.3,4 Although most nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine, the colon harbors the majority of bacterial colonists. The colon can be viewed as the major site for "co-metabolic" activity, which enhances the efficiency of the energy harvest from foods 5,6 and influences the synthesis, bioavailability, and function of nutrients, 4 vitamins, 7,8 and drugs.9,10 Thus, the functional interaction between microbes and their host explains individual variability of nutrient metabolism and bioavailability.11 Understanding the relationship between the gut microbiome and diet is important for the development of next-generation therapeutic foods that target these microbes in health-promoting ways and will ultimately usher us toward an era of personalized nutrition and medicine.In this paper, current knowledge of the gut microbiome from the perspective of human dietary history and the coevolutionary relationship with the host will be broadly reviewed. The impact of major dietary...

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Section: Journal Of Agricultural and Food Chemistrymentioning

confidence: 99%

Emerging Aspects of Food and Nutrition on Gut Microbiota

He¹,

Marco²,

Slupsky³

2013

J. Agric. Food Chem.

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show abstract

“…Almost 100 % of azoreductase activity of E. coli was found in the cytoplasm and proved to be unable to significantly reduce water-insoluble azo dyes, whereas 55 % of the azoreductase activity of Enterococcus faecalis was membrane bound and capable of reducing the azo bond of some water-insoluble dyes (Xu et al, 2010).…”

Section: Azoreduction By the Intestinal Microfloramentioning

confidence: 99%

Statement on Allura Red AC and other sulphonated mono azo dyes authorised as food and feed additives

2013

EFSA Journal

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The ANS Panel has been asked by EFSA to assess the new scientific information that has become available since the adoption of the opinion on the re-evaluation of the food colouring agent Allura Red AC in 2009, in particular the positive findings from an in vivo comet assay in mice. The findings from this study have been interpreted in conjunction with all the available relevant data from genotoxicity testing, metabolism and carcinogenicity, and in consideration of possible species differences between mouse and rat. These new data have been considered in the context of the overall relevant data available not only for Allura Red AC but also for a number of other structurally related sulphonated mono azo dyes authorised as food additives, namely: Amaranth, Ponceau 4R, Sunset Yellow FCF, Tartrazine and Azorubine/Carmoisine. The Panel concluded that the new data by themselves were insufficient at this time to change the conclusions of the 2009 opinion on the safety of Allura Red AC and that there is currently no reason to revise the ADI. The read-across exercise has highlighted a shared pattern of effects for this class of substances that would warrant further investigation The Panel therefore recommended a repetition of the in vivo comet assay in mice, to be performed in compliance with the most recent and internationally validated experimental protocol, using whole cells and examining a wide range of tissues. These recommendations apply to all the sulphonated mono azo dyes included in this review. This request originates from an opinion adopted by the FEEDAP Panel in April 2012 on the reevaluation of the substance for use in feedingstuffs for cats and dogs. In its opinion, the FEEDAP Panel had concluded that the genotoxic potential of Allura Red AC could not be excluded and that the data available were insufficient to demonstrate the safety of the substance for its proposed use.In the context of the re-evaluation of Allura Red AC for use as a food additive, a first positive in vivo comet assay in mice by Tsuda et al. (2001) The ANS Panel critically reviewed the study by Shimada et al. (2010) and noted that these results were observed by a single group of researchers using an in-house developed protocol that uses isolated nuclei from homogenised tissues. Although this protocol was considered to meet the minimum criteria for acceptance of the in vivo comet assay (EFSA, 2012), the Panel noted that such protocol had not been included in the international validation exercise. Under the same experimental conditions, no effect could be observed in the rat. The Panel noted that the same findings observed for Allura Red AC were also reported by Shimada et al. (2010) for the two other authorised food dyes tested in this study, Amaranth and Ponceau 4R.The Panel acknowledged the role of the comet assay as an indicator test for the detection of DNA lesions and/or DNA repair activity and concluded that the findings reported cannot be considered conclusive evidence of mutagenicity, i.e. of induced permanent genetic cha...

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“…These data suggest that Sudan I caused breaks in DNA strands and chromosomes. Sudan II causes mutations in Salmonella Typhimurium TA 1538 in the presence of a rat liver preparation (Garner & Nutman, 1977;Xu et al, 2010). Concern about the safety of Sudan III, which is used in cosmetics, has arisen from its potential metabolic cleavage by skin bacteria producing 4-aminoazobenzene and aniline (Pielesz et al, 2002), and Sudan IV has been shown to require reduction and microsomal activation in order to be mutagenic (Brown et al, 1978).…”

Section: Reductive Metabolismmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The direct mutagenicities of Alizarin Yellow GG and Acid Alizarin Yellow R were eliminated by reduction, but in the presence of the exogenous metabolic system (S9), the resulting products were mutagenic and exhibited frame-shift activity (Brown et al, 1978;Combes & Haveland-Smith, 1982). The Sudan dyes I, II, III and IV are oil-soluble azo dyes (1-amino-2-naphthol-based azo dyes), widely used in coloring plastics, leather, fabrics, printing inks, waxes and floor polishes Xu et al, 2010). Sudan I is a liver and urinary bladder carcinogen in mammals and is also considered as a possible human mutagen, since it can produce the benzenediazonium ion during metabolism catalyzed by cytochrome P450, which could be the mechanism by which Sudan I is activated leading to a carcinogenic final product (Stiborová et al, 2002(Stiborová et al, , 2005Xu et al, 2010).…”

Section: Reductive Metabolismmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The Sudan dyes I, II, III and IV are oil-soluble azo dyes (1-amino-2-naphthol-based azo dyes), widely used in coloring plastics, leather, fabrics, printing inks, waxes and floor polishes Xu et al, 2010). Sudan I is a liver and urinary bladder carcinogen in mammals and is also considered as a possible human mutagen, since it can produce the benzenediazonium ion during metabolism catalyzed by cytochrome P450, which could be the mechanism by which Sudan I is activated leading to a carcinogenic final product (Stiborová et al, 2002(Stiborová et al, , 2005Xu et al, 2010). found a dose-dependent increase in DNA migration in the comet assay, and in the frequency of micronuclei with all the concentrations of Sudan I tested (25-100 µM).…”

Section: Reductive Metabolismmentioning

confidence: 99%

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