Sudden Cardiac Death in Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Users: A Literature Review

Abstract

Background and objectives: Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are a group of synthetic molecules derived from testosterone and its related precursors. AASs are widely used illicitly by adolescents and athletes, especially by bodybuilders, both for aesthetic uses and as performance enhancers to increase muscle growth and lean body mass. When used illicitly they can damage health and cause disorders affecting several functions. Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the most common medical cause of death in athletes. SCD in athletes has also been associated with the use of performance-enhancing drugs. This review aimed to focus on deaths related to AAS abuse to investigate the cardiac pathophysiological mechanism that underlies this type of death, which still needs to be fully investigated. Materials and Methods: This review was conducted using PubMed Central and Google Scholar databases, until 21 July 2020, using the following key terms: “((Sudden cardiac death) OR (Sudden death)) AND ((androgenic anabolic steroid) OR (androgenic anabolic steroids) OR (anabolic-androgenic steroids) OR (anabolic-androgenic steroid))”. Thirteen articles met the inclusion and exclusion criteria, for a total of 33 reported cases. Results: Of the 33 cases, 31 (93.9%) were males while only 2 (61%) were females. Mean age was 29.79 and, among sportsmen, the most represented sports activity was bodybuilding. In all cases there was a history of AAS abuse or a physical phenotype suggesting AAS use; the total usage period was unspecified in most cases. In 24 cases the results of the toxicological analysis were reported. The most detected AASs were nandrolone, testosterone, and stanozolol. The most frequently reported macroscopic alterations were cardiomegaly and left ventricular hypertrophy, while the histological alterations were foci of fibrosis and necrosis of the myocardial tissue. Conclusions: Four principal mechanisms responsible for SCD have been proposed in AAS abusers: the atherogenic model, the thrombosis model, the model of vasospasm induced by the release of nitric oxide, and the direct myocardial injury model. Hypertrophy, fibrosis, and necrosis represent a substrate for arrhythmias, especially when combined with exercise. Indeed, AAS use has been shown to change physiological cardiac remodeling of athletes to pathophysiological cardiac hypertrophy with an increased risk of life-threatening arrhythmias.

Adverse Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids: A Literature Review

“…The scientific community should intensify its efforts to assess the pathophysiology of behavior and cognitive impairment due to long term AAS exposure. Moreover, evidence is urgently required to support the development of a reliable diagnostic tool to identify precociously AAS abuse as well as evidence-based therapy [ 57 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 ].…”

The Cardiac Effects of Performance-Enhancing Medications: Caffeine vs. Anabolic Androgenic Steroids

“…The lifetime prevalence of AASs ranges from 1–5% in Western countries, and its use has increased four-fold, since 2016, from 0.1% to 0.4% of the population, affecting an extra 19,000 young people (aged 16–24 years old). Although AASs are commonly administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly, it may also be delivered as oral or transdermal preparations or as an implant [ 43 ]. Motivators for its use include achieving rapid muscle growth, greater than can be achieved by exercise alone [ 6 ].…”

“…Motivators for its use include achieving rapid muscle growth, greater than can be achieved by exercise alone [ 6 ]. It can often be problematic to attribute the harmful cardiac effects of AASs, as users often take other compounds such as ephedrine, growth hormone, thyroxine and amphetamines [ 7 , 43 ]. Nonetheless, with mounting evidence in developing several physical and psychological health disorders, its use has become more than a concern restricted to athletes but one of public health.…”

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids and Cardiometabolic Derangements

“…Furthermore, cardiac screening in athletes with an electrocardiogram or echocardiogram is generally not advised. Yet there is consistent evidence that AAS can directly induce direct pathologic changes to the heart [ 9 ]. Specific knowledge regarding AAS can help physicians more accurately screen this patient population, especially given many of the unknown long term side effects.…”