Sulphate in Pregnancy

Abstract

Sulphate is an obligate nutrient for healthy growth and development. Sulphate conjugation (sulphonation) of proteoglycans maintains the structure and function of tissues. Sulphonation also regulates the bioactivity of steroids, thyroid hormone, bile acids, catecholamines and cholecystokinin, and detoxifies certain xenobiotics and pharmacological drugs. In adults and children, sulphate is obtained from the diet and from the intracellular metabolism of sulphur-containing amino acids. Dietary sulphate intake can vary greatly and is dependent on the type of food consumed and source of drinking water. Once ingested, sulphate is absorbed into circulation where its level is maintained at approximately 300 μmol/L, making sulphate the fourth most abundant anion in plasma. In pregnant women, circulating sulphate concentrations increase by twofold with levels peaking in late gestation. This increased sulphataemia, which is mediated by up-regulation of sulphate reabsorption in the maternal kidneys, provides a reservoir of sulphate to meet the gestational needs of the developing foetus. The foetus has negligible capacity to generate sulphate and thereby, is completely reliant on sulphate supply from the maternal circulation. Maternal hyposulphataemia leads to foetal sulphate deficiency and late gestational foetal death in mice. In humans, reduced sulphonation capacity has been linked to skeletal dysplasias, ranging from the mildest form, multiple epiphyseal dysplasia, to achondrogenesis Type IB, which results in severe skeletal underdevelopment and death in utero or shortly after birth. Despite being essential for numerous cellular and metabolic functions, the nutrient sulphate is largely unappreciated in clinical settings. This article will review the physiological roles and regulation of sulphate during pregnancy, with a particular focus on animal models of disturbed sulphate homeostasis and links to human pathophysiology.

Natural mineral waters: chemical characteristics and health effects

“…Sulphate is an obligate nutrient for numerous metabolic and cellular processes, particularly in foetal growth and development. For this reason sulphate mineral waters demonstrate to be an alternative choice for diet of pregnant women (34).…”

Extracellular Cl− regulates human SO4 2−/anion exchanger SLC26A1 by altering pH sensitivity of anion transport

“…1) is similar to those previously reported for rat (0.14 mM, [7]), and reported as data not shown for mouse (0.31 mM, [42]) and human SLC26A1 (0.19 mM, [61]). The human K 1/2 value is appropriate for a baso-lateral epithelial transporter in the presence of serum SO 4 2− concentrations of ~0.25-0.41 mM [50] that can double in late gestation [17] and triple during renal insufficiency [52]. Krick et al [40] previously characterized K 1/2 values for cis-inhibition of rat SLC26A1-mediated SO 4 2− uptake by extracellular HCO 3 − , thiosulfate, sulfite, and oxalate.…”

Anorganski spojevi sumpora u ljudskom tijelu. I. Okso-spojevi.

“…Smrtonosna doza kalijeva i cinkova sulfata iznosi 750 mg kg −1 , a magnezijeva sulfata 200 mg kg −1 . 46,48 Kada se konzumiraju u visokim koncentracijama, magnezijeve i natrijeve soli dovode do proljeva i dehidracije. Magnezijev sulfat (gorka sol) služi u medicini kao laksativ, a primjenjuje se i kao komponenta soli za kupke.…”

“…46 Nakon unosa sulfat se apsorbira u krv, gdje se njegova razina odražava na oko 0,3 -0,5 mmol l −1 , što ga čini četvrtim najzastupljenijim anionom u ljudskoj plazmi. 34,46,47 Istu koncentraciju ima u izvanstaničnoj tekućini, dok je koncentracija u staničnoj tekućini po prilici dvaput veća. Valja istaknuti da se sulfatni ioni i drugi anorganski anioni koji sadrže sumpor pojavljuju u ljudskom organizmu u obliku soli s metalnim kationima poput Na + , K + , Ca 2+ i Mg…”