Superstitiousness and Intelligence

Abstract

Powers ( 193 1 ) and Belanger ( 1944 ) reported negative correlations between measures of intelligence and measures of superstitiousness in college students, but neither of the correlations was statistically significant. The present report investigated the relationship between an original index of superstitiousness and a widely used test of intelligence.Forty-nine seniors in two classes of a public high school in Georgia, whose ages ranged from 17 to 19 yr., anonymously cook an original 57-item superstitiousness questionnaire during regular class hours. This questionnaire' contained commonly believed statements which have no basis in scientific fact, as: June marriages are lucky; ic is bad luck for a black cat to cross your path; carrying a horse chestnut or buckeye will bring you good luck. Ss were asked to indicate either no, slight, moderate, or strong agreement with each statement by placing a check in the appropriate column with respect to statements they had heard before and an "X" in the appropriate column in regard to statements with which they were unfamiliar. One point was scored for indicating slight agreement with a familiar statement, two points were scored for moderate agreement, and three points for strong agreement. An extra point was scored each time S indicated any degree of agreement with a stacement he was being exposed to for the first time. Thus, the questionnaire had a possible range of scores from 0 to 228, with higher scores representing greater agreement with superstitious statements.On a subsequent date, all Ss were given the Otis Quick-scoring Mental Ability Test, Gamma Test; Form C. Twenty-four Ss had IQs on the Otis between 84 and 111. These Ss were included in the "Average IQ Group." Twenty-five Ss with IQs of 115 and above were placed in the "Above Average IQ Group." The members of the Average IQ Group had a mean score on the superstitiousness questionnaire of 29.49 (SD = 33.64, Range = & I l l ) , and the Above Average IQ Group obtained a mean score of 12.28 (SD = 19.98, Range = 1-102).A t test applied to the difference between these two means yielded a ratio of 2.16 ( P = .05). These data suggest that high school students of higher intelligence are less likely to agree with erroneous beliefs, superstitions, than are those who make lower scores on IQ tests. However, the results still leave open the question of whether intelligence per se directly influences a person's level of supersticiousness or whether intelligence appears to have this effect through influencing the social group to which an individual belongs which, in turn, partially determines the number of erroneous statements believed.

Childhood Rituals: Normal Development or Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms?

“…Plug's (1976) review of the literature on superstitions found that the majority of the studies were poorly done, out-dated, and conflicted one another. The early literature and the more recent reports of the relationship between age (Wagner, 1928;Thouless and Brown , 1964), sex, (Blum and Blum, 1974), intelligence (Killen et al, 1974), education (Pasachoff et al , 1970), and environment (Blum, 1976) and superstitious beliefs are conflicting and inconsistent. Opie and Opie (1959) have compiled the largest sample of childhood superstitious beliefs surveying 5,000 school children throughout the United Kingdom.…”

Critical thinking and belief in the paranormal: A re‐evaluation

“…Within this programme, studies have investigated supposed diåerences between paranormal believers and disbelievers in educational attainment (Emmons & Sobal, 1981 ;Messer & Griggs, 1989 ;Tobacyk, Miller & Jones, 1984), science education (Otis & Alcock, 1982 ;Irwin, 1990 ;Tobacyk, 1983), performance on intelligence tests (Jones, Russell & Nickel, 1977 ;Killen, Wildman & Wildman, 1974) and accuracy in probability judgments (Blackmore & Troscianko, 1985 ;Brugger, Landis & Regard, 1990). For each of these, however, the ®ndings are inconsistent (Blackmore, 1994, summarizes the relevant literature for the last-named ; see Irwin, 1993, for a review of the others), and at best provide only equivocal support for the cognitive de®cits hypothesis.…”

Deprivation model of paranormal belief: Mediation by religiosity and church involvement

“…Individuals with more educational achievement are less likely to hold religious paranormal beliefs. The negative relationship between education and paranormal belief is supported by Vyse (1997), Blum (1974Blum ( , 1976, Jahoda (1970), and Killen, Wildman, and Wildman (1974). These findings are at odds with Irwin (1993) who, in a meta-analysis of several studies of paranormal belief research, showed that there was no correlation between paranormal belief and intelligence.…”

“…Intelligent or highly educated participants have been shown to have less paranormal beliefs (Blum S. H., 1974;Blum S. H., 1976;Jahoda, 1970;Killen, Wildman, & Wildman, 1974;Mencken, Bader , & Kim, 2009). Killen, Wildman, and Wildman (1974), in addition to Blum (1974;1976), found a inverse relationship between paranormal beliefs and intelligence.…”

“…Intelligent or highly educated participants have been shown to have less paranormal beliefs (Blum S. H., 1974;Blum S. H., 1976;Jahoda, 1970;Killen, Wildman, & Wildman, 1974;Mencken, Bader , & Kim, 2009). Killen, Wildman, and Wildman (1974), in addition to Blum (1974;1976), found a inverse relationship between paranormal beliefs and intelligence. In most studies that have included participants from a wide variety of educational levels, paranormal beliefs have been less prevalent among the more educated (Orenstein, 2002;Otis & Alcock, 1982;Za'rour, 1972).…”