Abstract:Astigmatism -Optics, Physiology and Management 294Refractive astigmatism; also called total astigmatism; as determined by retinoscopy or by s u b j e c t i v e r e f r a c t i o n , i s m a d e u p o f both corneal and internal astigmatism. Corneal astigmatism occurs due to unequal curvature along the two principal meridians of the anterior cornea and internal astigmatism is due to factors such as the toricity of the posterior surface of the cornea, unequal curvatures of the front and back surfaces of the crys… Show more
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