Surviving the Urban Jungle: Anthropogenic Threats, Wildlife-Conflicts, and Management Recommendations for African Crowned Eagles

Abstract

Larger carnivores often trigger human-wildlife conflicts that arise from perceived threats to humans and domestic animals’ safety, which generate the need for management and removal strategies. These issues become especially challenging when humans and wildlife coexist close to one another, for example, in urban landscapes. African Crowned Eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus) are powerful forest raptors that breed within the metropolitan green-space system of Durban and Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. Negative human-wildlife interactions can occur because eagles occasionally predate on pets, such as cats (Felis catus) and small dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and provisioning domestic stock to nest sites has previously been quantified. Here, wildlife management becomes critical, usually aimed at reducing or eliminating causes of economic or social harm, but have to be balanced against conservation goals regarding threatened species. In this study, we (i) identified causes of harm or loss of Crowned Eagles because of injuries (n = 53 incidents; 31 mortalities); and (ii) describe interactions with negative perceptions to human livelihoods, particularly concerning predation on pets and livestock. Anthropogenic causes of mortality were more likely to be reported than remote natural deaths, which provides important opportunities for mitigation measures. Most avoidable are electrocution on utility poles, persecution via gunshot wounds and poisoning (targeted or secondary), while collisions with anthropogenic structures, such as glass panes, vehicles and fence wires, are more challenging to mitigate. Out of 44 verified Crowned Eagle vs. pets and livestock conflicts, we documented 19 dog attacks (2012–2020), with detrimental impacts on social perception and acceptance of urban eagles. Pet and livestock conflicts were primarily associated with juveniles and immature eagles (83%). Of these, 19% occurred during September alone, which marks the end of the post-fledging dependency period; 70% occurred outside the breeding season. We provide management recommendations regarding various categories of Crowned Eagle human-wildlife interactions. For example, activities such as rehabilitation and falconry can coordinate to achieve a high standard of public support and conservation outcomes for Crowned Eagles. Finally, we discuss using different management intervention strategies, including rehabilitation, falconry, re-wildling processes, and lethal control of specific “problem” individuals toward achieving the goal of sustainable, healthy Crowned Eagle populations that coexist with humans in urban landscapes.

Seasonal Movement Patterns of Urban Domestic Cats Living on the Edge in an African City

“…There are no records of raptors in the region (e.g., Verreaux’s Eagles, Fish Eagles) depredating cats in the Cape Peninsula. Known predators of cats such Crowned Eagles Stephanoeatus cornotus and Leopards Panthera pardus [ 37 ] are not found in Cape Town. Comparable risk and avoidance effects have been noted in parks in the USA where Coyote Canis latrans presence limited the time cats spend in the open [ 38 ] and cat abundance was negatively associated with the presence of coyotes in Canada [ 39 ].…”

The raptor lockdown menu—Shifts in prey composition suggest urban peregrine diets are linked to human activities

“…More contentiously, some human activities introduce live animals into the landscape, which may become depredated. In urban environments, pets or poultry raised in backyards and allotments can comprise a small part of opportunistic raptor diets with huge social impacts (Brassley, 2018; Karabozhilova et al, 2012; McPherson et al, 2016b, 2021), while racing pigeons Columba livia domestica are financially valuable prey indiscriminately taken by bird‐eating raptors such as peregrine falcons ( Falco peregrinus ; hereafter peregrine ) and sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus in Europe and North America (Amar et al, 2012; Armstrong, 1991; Kettel et al, 2021; UK Raptor Working Group, 2019). It is uncertain how important these prey are to urban raptors but in the UK countryside where racing pigeons can comprise one‐third to half of peregrine diets (Dixon, 2002; Dixon et al, 2018), their availability can lead to high population growth for their predators and trigger human–wildlife conflict (Dixon et al, 2010; Gryz & Krauze‐Gryz, 2019; López‐López et al, 2009; Ratcliffe, 2010).…”

“…Possibilities range from raptors directly benefitting from human subsidies to anthropogenic activity shaping the behaviour and availability of their prey, which we will next explore. People may intentionally provide meat to raptors, for example as part of religious ceremonies (Kumar, Gupta, et al, 2019; MaMing et al, 2018), or out of concern for their well‐being or a desire to connect with nature (Andereggen, 2020; Cereghetti et al, 2019; McPherson et al, 2021; Nägeli et al, 2021; Orros & Fellowes, 2015). Feedings may also be opportunistic, with raptors scavenging on roadkill (Gryz & Krauze‐Gryz, 2019; López‐López et al, 2014; Orros & Fellowes, 2015), discarded food waste or litter, especially around eating establishments and abattoirs (Chamberlain et al, 2017; Kübler et al, 2005).…”