“…Lowering internal costs to achieve cost leadership (Porter, 1985) may benefit a firm but may come at the expense of the environment in the form of increased carbon emissions, usage of harmful materials, higher after-sales and post-consumer waste, and so on. We thus contend that social and consumers' life cycle costs (Amienyo, Doyle, Gerola, Santacatterina, & Azapagic, 2016), in addition to the costs incurred by the firm, need to be addressed. The environmental impact (A1 in Table 1) may be minimized while reducing costs by refurbishing products (e.g., laptops, phones) so that these can be reused; remanufacturing (e.g., cars) by replacing worn out parts;…”