Symbolic Representation, Expectancy Disconfirmation, and Citizen Complaints Against Police

Abstract

The theory of symbolic representation expects that citizens will view the actions of government as more legitimate when administrators share their characteristics. Although there is support for this assertion in some service areas, the evidence in policing is mixed. We draw on Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory to develop the expectation that policing is an area where we may be unlikely to see a positive relationship between representation and positive citizen perceptions of government officials. We test this expectation in an individual-level analysis of citizen complaints against police from four American cities between 2014 and 2017. The results suggest that, all else equal, complaints against Black officers are as or more likely to be filed by Black citizens than by citizens of other races. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of these results for both the study of representative bureaucracy and for the management of police citizen interactions.

Recategorization: An Approach to Extending the Symbolic Benefits of Bureaucratic Representation to the Majority Group

“…Racial representation in policing is not always converted into substantive policy benefits for people of color (Sharp & Johnson, 2009; Wright, 2020; Wright & Headley, 2020). This imperfect link between passive and active representations might have disappointed the high expectations among African Americans to be properly represented by African American officers, which could potentially inhibit symbolic representation effects from taking place (Headley et al, 2021; Lee & Nicholson-Crotty, 2022). Benton (2020)'s conclusion based on a mixed-methods analysis of police–civilian interactions is relevant in that regard: “Today, it appears that Black clients see Black police more as police officers than representatives.…”

Putting A Fresh Face Forward: Does the Gender of a Police Chief Affect Public Perceptions?

“…The public may believe that the shared identity bureaucrat has similar values and may experience greater psychological satisfaction with the government, leading to improved perceptions of legitimacy, increased trust, and greater co-production (Riccucci and Van Ryzin 2017, Riccucci et al 2014). While evidence supporting symbolic representation regarding race and policing is mixed (Theobald and Haider-Markel 2009, Lee and Nicholson-Crotty 2022, Headley et al 2021), women’s presence in police forces (and other bureaucratic institutions) increases perceptions of fairness, legitimacy, and support (Riccucci et al 2014, Schuck et al 2021). 4 Although symbolic representation does not require a bureaucrat to act differently, attitudes often improve due to expectations that the bureaucrat will act differently, informed by stereotypes and experiences associated with their identity.…”

Analysis of the Effect of Service Quality Dimensions, Perceived Value, and Trust on Customers of Delivery Services through E-commerce

“…As a result, the literature on expectancy disconfirmation theory (EDT) is used in the development of customer satisfaction. Customers have expectations, develop different expectations of service quality from personal experience, word of mouth, advertising, or other means, and thus apply different standards in forming subjective judgments or satisfaction ratings, according to expectation disconfirmation theory [13]. Expectancy is the customer's guess about what will happen during an upcoming transaction or exchange, and it is usually measured before actual consumption.…”