“…For many years, transient cue-or reward-associated increases in firing rate -from a low tonic background frequency (about 1-8 Hz) into the beta and gamma range (15-30 Hz and 40-100 Hz, respectively) -were thought to encode positive reward prediction errors (RPEs), while short rate reductions or pauses in baseline firing were believed to encode negative RPEs, induced for instance by the omission of an expected reward. However, increasing experimental evidence points to a multitude of other dopamine functions such as salience and novelty, action control (Coddington and Dudman, 2018;Jin and Costa, 2010) as well as aversion (Menegas et al, 2018) which are in line with the emerging molecular (Heymann et al, 2020;Poulin et al, 2020), cellular, and anatomical diversity of the midbrain dopamine system (Beier et al, 2019;Beier et al, 2015;Farassat et al, 2019;Lammel et al, 2008;Lammel et al, 2012;Morales and Margolis, 2017;Watabe-Uchida et al, 2012). Even within canonical RPE signaling, the interpretation of the transient burst has become more complex.…”