Tactical and Strategic Landscapes: A Study of Maya Fortification at Tzunun, Chiapas, Mexico

Abstract

Although studies of warfare are now common in Maya archaeology, much remains to be learned about strategy, tactics, and various other practical factors in the process of making war. An emphasis on the concrete and practical is necessary to both acknowledge agency and understand how conflict relates to the human experience. Through an examination of documentary and archaeological data in a comparative framework, I elaborate on practices of Maya fortification construction and how the creation of a martial landscape ties into relations of power during the Late Postclassic/Early Spanish Colonial period (a.d. 1200–1600). During this period, in the region of Mensabak, Chiapas, Mexico, Maya peoples fortified a peninsula according to principles of defense-in-depth. In other words, they created layers of fortification to slow and stall an attack. My analysis reveals how the creation of a martial landscape shaped local culture by incorporating elements of sacred geography and ritual landscape to perpetuate social inequality.

Unleashing Maya Warfare: Inquiry Into the Practical Aspects of War-Making

“…Colonial-period accounts provide evidence of numerous engagements between armed groups of Maya warriors and Spanish-led forces (Asselbergs 2004; Bassie-Sweet et al 2015; De Vos 1980; Díaz del Castillo 2008; Feldman 2000; Jones 1998; Pagden 1986; Restall 2014; Restall and Asselbergs 2007; Simpson 1964). In this Special Section, Hernandez (2023) employs ethnohistoric documents to examine how the Maya built and used fortifications. His analysis focuses on the use of lacustrine environments with rugged terrain to create layers of fortification revealing how the design of a martial landscape ties into the institutionalization of inequality.…”

“…Sculptures formed the literal embodiment of captives and communicated the central role of elite bodies in the maintenance of the status quo. Extending the concept of embodiment, Bracken (2023) and Hernandez (2023) individually examine how interactions with landscape shaped social life via the task of preparing for war. Bracken pairs geospatial analysis to understand how martial architecture is shaped by martial concerns and how these constructions in turn shape how people move within a community.…”

Striking distance: Investigating the epigraphy and geography of a Late Classic Maya war

“…In the scenario suggested here, El Rosario first served K'anwitznal as a staging ground for an attack on Juluup; then, El Rosario was attacked in turn and neutralized or co-opted in some way in preparation for Juluup's subsequent revenge attack on K'anwitznal. This would add further support to the proposal that hinterland settlements had a defensive function, standing between royal capitals and foes from outside (Alcover Firpi and Golden 2020;Hernandez 2023;Scherer and Golden 2009). Perhaps, by falling into enemy hands, such settlements could also become liabilities.…”

Cultural Dimensions of Warfare in the Maya World

“…The capture of enemies appears to have been the foremost measure of military achievement among Classic Maya warriors, whose titles often referenced their capture of high-profile enemies or a tally of captives taken (Inomata and Triadan 2009:63). The epigraphic and iconographic records suggest that one of the main objectives of such captive-taking practices was ritual sacrifice, though there is evidence to suggest that sacrifice was not always the only result, and that ransom was sometimes a significant outcome (see Earley 2023; Hernandez 2023).…”