Takeover performance evaluation using driving simulation: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Introduction In a context of increasing automation of road transport, many researchers have been dedicated to analyse the risks and safety implications of resuming the manual control of a vehicle after a period of automated driving. This paper performs a systematic review about drivers’ performance during takeover manoeuvres in driving simulator, a tool that is widely used in the evaluation of automated systems to reproduce risky situations that would not be possible to test in real roads. Objectives The main objectives are to provide a framework for the main strategies, experimental conditions and results obtained by takeover research using driving simulation, as well as to find whether different approaches may lead to different outcomes. Methodology First, a literature search following the PRISMA statement guidelines and checklist resulted in 36 relevant papers, which were described in detail according to the type of scenarios and takeover events, drivers’ engagement in secondary tasks and the assessed takeover performance measures. Then, those papers were included in a meta-analysis combining PAM clustering and ANOVA techniques to find patterns among the experimental conditions and to determine if those patterns have influence on the observed takeover performance. Conclusions Less complex experiments without secondary task engagement and conducted in low-fidelity simulators are associated with lower takeover times and crash rates. The takeover time increases with the time budget of the first alert, which reduces the pressure for a driver’s quick intervention.

Effects of non-driving related tasks during autonomous driving

“…Petermann-Stock et al (2013) uvádějí čas převzetí 3,2 sekund. V metaanalýze od Soares et al (2021) založené na 36 studiích lze nalézt rozmezí reakčního času mezi 1,5 až 3,5 sekundami, přičemž analyzované studie se odlišují v různých experimentálních podmínkách. V tomto kontextu se nabízí myšlenka, že obvykle měřený reakční čas je časem prostým, kdy se jedná o prvotní reakci, která je refl exní a rychlá.…”

“…dívat se na fi lm, číst si, dívat se z okna, vyhledávat komplexní informace na tabletu/PC, psát e-maily atd. (Naujoks et al, 2016;Soares et al, 2021;Yang et al, 2020).…”

Inclusive and collaborative advanced transport: are we really heading to sustainable mobility?

“…In turn, the research of Soares et al [ 35 ] and Strömberg et al [ 37 ] is focused on vehicle automation, the greatest technological challenge for road transport in the next decades. Given the pace of technology development, fully-automated vehicles will inevitably arrive on public roads in a few years from now [ 19 ].…”

“…However, as full automation will not become common and affordable overnight, for the time being, numerous efforts are being made to evaluate the safety of partially- and conditionally-automated systems. Soares et al [ 35 ] presented a literature review of these recent efforts, focused on the analysis of human capabilities to recover the manual control of an automated vehicle (AV) when the system fails or when it is unable to cope with certain (more or less critical) traffic situations. Considering that the takeover manoeuvre is arguably the most relevant new risk introduced by vehicle automation, and that testing it on real roads poses significant ethical and practical challenges, most research has been conducted in driving simulators, testing situations with varying levels of complexity.…”

Examining the Effects of Visibility and Time Headway on the Takeover Risk during Conditionally Automated Driving

“…Various studies focusing on the takeover issue of L3 automation vehicles have been conducted during the past decade. Considering the potential risk of takeover in the on-road experiments, driving simulator experiments were applied to conduct the studies in most of the relevant literature [ 6 ]. According to the level of urgency of the takeover situation, driving scenarios used in these studies could be divided into two categories: critical and non-critical [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].…”