Target tracking during venom ‘spitting’ by cobras

Westhoff, Guido; Boetig, Melissa; Bleckmann, Horst; Young, Bruce A.

doi:10.1242/jeb.037135

Cited by 30 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…Spitting patterns on the photos showed that the venom streamlines are either between the eyes or at one eye, suggesting the intent to hit at least one eye of an aggressor. Another group investigated target tracking during cobra venom spitting [ 8 ]. They observed that cobras perform rapid cephalic oscillations to coordinate the target’s movements, for increasing the chance of hitting the eyes.…”

Section: Snake Venom/toxin Cause Ocular Complicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Venom Ophthalmia and Ocular Complications Caused by Snake Venom

Chang

Huang

Chen

et al. 2020

Toxins

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Little is known about the detailed clinical description, pathophysiology, and efficacy of treatments for ocular envenoming (venom ophthalmia) caused by venom of the spitting elapid and other snakes, as well as ocular complications caused by snake venom injection. In this paper, we review clinical information of case reports regarding venom ophthalmia and snake venom injection with associated ocular injuries in Asia, Africa, and the United States. We also review the literature of snake venom such as their compositions, properties, and toxic effects. Based on the available clinical information and animal studies, we further discuss possible mechanisms of venom ophthalmia derived from two different routes (Duvernoy’s gland in the mouth and nuchal gland in the dorsal neck) and the pathophysiology of snake venom injection induced ocular complications, including corneal edema, corneal erosion, cataract, ocular inflammation, retinal hemorrhage, acute angle closure glaucoma, as well as ptosis, diplopia, and photophobia. Finally, we discuss the appropriate first aid and novel strategies for treating venom ophthalmia and snake envenoming.

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Section: Snake Venom/toxin Cause Ocular Complicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Venom Ophthalmia and Ocular Complications Caused by Snake Venom

Chang

Huang

Chen

et al. 2020

Toxins

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“…Targeting, as measured using head movements, therefore provides a useful overall measure of a participant's ability to follow a fast moving prey item, while providing a measure of biological realism in the context of predator-prey interactions (where animals often align their head with the target before attack; e.g. [27,28]).…”

Section: Methods (A) Simulationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Unpredictable movement as an anti-predator strategy

et al. 2018

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Prey animals have evolved a wide variety of behaviours to combat the threat of predation, and these have been generally well studied. However, one of the most common and taxonomically widespread antipredator behaviours of all has, remarkably, received almost no experimental attention: so-called 'protean' behaviour. This is behaviour that is sufficiently unpredictable to prevent a predator anticipating in detail the future position or actions of its prey. In this study, we used human 'predators' participating in 3D virtual reality simulations to test how protean (i.e. unpredictable) variation in prey movement affects participants' ability to visually target them as they move (a key determinant of successful predation). We found that targeting accuracy was significantly predicted by prey movement path complexity, although, surprisingly, there was little evidence that high levels of unpredictability in the underlying movement rules equated directly to decreased predator performance. Instead, the specific movement rules differed in how they impacted on targeting accuracy, with the efficacy of protean variation in one element depending on the values of the remaining elements. These findings provide important insights into the understudied phenomenon of protean antipredator behaviour, which are directly applicable to predator-prey dynamics within a broad range of taxa.

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“…Asian spitting cobras (Naja: subgenus Naja) and the rinkhals (monotypic Hemachatus). All use modified fangs with small, rounded, front-facing orifices (7) to produce a spray of venom, which may reach distances of 2.5 m (8), and targets the eyes of an aggressor (9) (Fig. S1).…”

Section: Main Textmentioning

confidence: 99%

Convergent Evolution of Pain-Inducing Defensive Venom Components in Spitting Cobras

Kazandjian

Petras

Robinson

et al. 2020

Preprint

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Convergent evolution provides unparalleled insights into the selective drivers underlying evolutionary change. While snakes use venom primarily for predation, and venom composition often reflects diet specificity, three lineages of spitting cobras have independently evolved the ability to use venom as a defensive projectile. Using gene, protein and functional analyses, we show that the three spitting lineages possess venom characterized by an upregulation of PLA2 toxins, which potentiate the action of venom cytotoxins to activate mammalian sensory neurons and cause enhanced pain. These repeated independent changes provide a fascinating example of convergent evolution across multiple phenotypic levels driven by exaptations. Notably, the timing of their origins suggests that defensive venom spitting may have evolved in response to the emergence of bipedal hominids in Africa and Asia.

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Target tracking during venom ‘spitting’ by cobras

Cited by 30 publications

References 26 publications

Venom Ophthalmia and Ocular Complications Caused by Snake Venom

Venom Ophthalmia and Ocular Complications Caused by Snake Venom

Unpredictable movement as an anti-predator strategy

Convergent Evolution of Pain-Inducing Defensive Venom Components in Spitting Cobras

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