Technology &amp; swimming: 3 steps beyond physiology

Berthelot, Geoffroy; Len, Stéphane; Hellard, Philippe; Tafflet, Muriel; Helou, Nour El; Escolano, Sylvie; Guillaume, Marion; Schaal, Karine; Nassif, Hala; Desgorces, François Denis; Toussaint, Jean‐François

doi:10.1016/s1369-7021(10)70203-0

Cited by 22 publications

(60 citation statements)

References 13 publications

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“…Berthelot et al showed a gain in swim speed between 2000 and 2009 between ~1.9% and ~2.6% in men, and between ~1.3% and ~2.3% in women 9. In the 200 m distance, the swim-speed improvements tended to be higher in the medley than in the freestyle for both sexes, which is in line with present findings for women.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 90%

“…In accordance with the development of world records in freestyle,2 the sex difference in the 100 m freestyle decreased from 14.3% in the 1950s to 11.5% in the 1980s, and was stable until the year 2000. However, contrary to the expectations of stagnation and an almost reached maximum physiologically possible sports performance,1 the swim times in the different strokes had been improved again in the 2000s by ~2%,9 and the sex difference in the 100 m freestyle increased again to 12.2% between 2000 and 2005 8. This improvement could be partially explained by the development of the new drag-reducing swimsuits in 2000, 2008, and 2009,9 improved pool designs like deeper pools and more effective “antiwave” lane ropes,10 a more efficient training process based on better training control with, eg, the robotic underwater camcorder,10 and also a better evaluation of swimmers by physiological parameters, psychological skills, and emotional competencies 11…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 71%

“…The fact that the sex difference in the 400 m medley, 200 m, and 400 m freestyle increased across the years while the sex difference in the 200 m medley remained unchanged in Swiss championships might be due to the introduction of the new generations of Fastskin suits, which was followed by significant gain in swim-speed performance in the years 2000, 2008, and 2009 9. In the 200 m medley, both sexes showed a similar gain in swim speed, while men had a higher gain in swim speed in the 400 m, the 200 m, and the 400 m freestyle 9. Further investigation would be necessary to clarify the unstable sex difference in Swiss championships compared to the stable sex difference in world championships.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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A comparison of medley and freestyle performance for national and international swimmers between 1994 and 2011

Buhl

Knechtle

Rüst

et al. 2013

OAJSM

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The change in swim performance over time has been investigated for freestyle, but not for other strokes, such as in the medley. The aim of the study was to examine changes in 200 m and 400 m swim performances in medley swimmers at national (Switzerland) and international level (world championship finals) from 1994 to 2011. The 200 m and 400 m freestyle performances were also analyzed for comparison. Swim performances were analyzed using linear regression and one-way analysis of variance. Male Swiss swimmers improved swim speed by 5.4% in the 200 m medley, 5.3% in the 200 m freestyle, 5.1% in the 400 m medley, and 5.7% in the 400 m freestyle (P < 0.01). Female Swiss swimmers improved swim speed by 4.4% in the 200 m medley, 3.3% in the 200 m freestyle, 3.9% in the 400 m medley, and 3.4% in the 400 m freestyle (P < 0.05). Male swimmers at international level improved swim speed by 4.5% in the 200 m medley, 4.6% in the 200 m freestyle, 2.6% in the 400 m medley, and 2.7% in the 400 m freestyle (P < 0.01). Female swimmers improved swim speed by 4.3% in the 200 m medley, 3.5% in the 400 m medley, and 3.1% in the 400 m freestyle (P ≤ 0.02), but 200 m freestyle performance remained unchanged (P > 0.05). The sex difference in national swim performance remained unchanged at 10.2% ± 0.6% for the 200 m medley (P > 0.05) and increased from 8.8% to 9.8% for the 400 m medley (P < 0.05). In freestyle, it increased from 8.8% to 10.7% in the 200 m, and from 7.8% to 9.4% in the 400 m (P < 0.01). The sex difference in international athletes remained unchanged at 11.1% ± 0.9% in the 200 m medley, 10.1% ± 0.8% in the 400 m medley, 10.0% ± 1.3% in the 200 m, and 9.2% ± 0.6% in the 400 m freestyle (P > 0.05). For the 400 m medley, the sex difference was lower compared to the 200 m medley for national (9.3% ± 0.8% vs 10.2% ± 0.6%, P = 0.01) and for international (10.1% ± 0.8% vs 11.1% ± 0.9%) athletes. For the 400 m freestyle, the sex difference was lower compared to the 200 m freestyle for national (7.9% ± 0.9% vs 9.3% ± 0.8%) and international (9.2% ± 0.6% vs 10.0% ± 1.3%) athletes (P < 0.01), and lower in the freestyle than the medley for the same distances (P < 0.01). Future studies should investigate the reasons for the greater sex difference in the medley than the freestyle.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 90%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 71%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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A comparison of medley and freestyle performance for national and international swimmers between 1994 and 2011

Buhl

Knechtle

Rüst

et al. 2013

OAJSM

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“…This confirms what has been previously shown in the literature for swimsuits: those made of rubber allow for a significant reduction in hydrodynamic resistance (compared with those made of textile), allowing for a significant increase in speed (1). However, no differences in drag were found in this study between LSC and CSC, indicating that differences in the material itself are not sufficient to determine differences in drag.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 89%

Effect of Swim Cap Model on Passive Drag

Gatta

Zamparo²,

Cortesi³

2013

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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Hydrodynamics plays an important role in swimming because even small decreases in a swimmer's drag can lead to performance improvements. During the gliding phases of a race, the head of a swimmer is an important point of impact with the fluid, and the swim cap, even if it covers only a small portion of the swimmer's body, can have an influence on drag. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects on passive drag (Dp) of wearing 3 different types of swim caps (LSC: a lycra cap; CSC: a silicone cap; HSC: a silicone helmet cap without seams). Sixteen swimmers were tested at 3 velocities (1.5, 1.7, 1.9 m·s), and the Dp measurements were repeated at each condition 5 times. A statistical analysis revealed significant differences in drag (p < 0.01) among caps: Dp is 5-6.5% lower for HSC than for CSC at all speeds and 6% lower in HSC than CSC at 1.9 m·s. No differences in Dp were observed between LSC and CSC at all speeds. Thus, the differences in Dp are based on the type of material (lycra vs. silicone) and on the presence/lack of seams: the HSC swim cap is the most rigid, the most adherent to the swimmer's head, and does not allow the formation of wrinkles compared with the other 2 investigated swim caps. Therefore, the following conclusions can be made: (a) swimmers should take care when selecting their swim cap if they want to improve the fluid dynamics at the "leading edge" of their body and (b) because Dp is affected by the swim cap model, care should be taken when comparing data from different studies, especially at faster investigated speeds.

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“…Also the improvement in pool design and ‘antiwave lane’ ropes [5] as well as the new drag-reducing swimsuits [4] have not been considered. These variables, environmental as well as material improvements might have influenced race outcomes.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Changes in sex difference in swimming speed in finalists at FINA World Championships and the Olympic Games from 1992 to 2013

Wild

Rüst

Rosemann

et al. 2014

BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil

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BackgroundThis study investigated swimming speeds and sex differences of finalists competing at the Olympic Games (i.e. 624 female and 672 male athletes) and FINA World Championships (i.e. 990 women and 1008 men) between 1992 and 2013.MethodsLinear, non-linear and multi-level regression models were used to investigate changes in swimming speeds and sex differences for champions and finalists.ResultsRegarding finalists in FINA World Championships and Olympic Games, swimming speed increased linearly in both women and men in all disciplines and race distances. Male world champions’ swimming speed remained stable in 200 m butterfly, 400 m, 800 m and 1,500 m freestyle. Considering women, swimming speed remained unchanged in 50 m and 400 m freestyle. In the Olympic Games, swimming speed of male champions remained unchanged in 200 m breaststroke, 50 m, 400 m, 800 m and 1,500 m freestyle. Female Olympic champions’ swimming speed remained stable in 100 m and 200 m backstroke, 100 m butterfly, 200 m individual medley, 50 m and 200 m freestyle. Evaluating sex differences between finalists in FINA World Championships, results showed a linear decrease in 100 m breaststroke and 200 m butterfly and a non-linear increase in 100 m backstroke. In finals at the Olympic Games, the sex difference decreased linearly for 100 m backstroke, 400 m and 800 m freestyle. However, a linear increase for 200 m butterfly can be reported. Considering Olympic and world champions, the sex difference remained stable in all disciplines and race distances.ConclusionSwimming speed of the finalists at the Olympic Games and FINA World Championships increased linearly. The top annual female swimmers increased swimming speed rather at longer race distances (i.e. 800 m and 1,500 m freestyle, 200 m butterfly, and 400 m individual medley), whereas the top annual male swimmers increased it rather at shorter race distances (i.e. 100 m and 200 m freestyle, 100 m butterfly, and 100 m breaststroke). Sex difference in swimming was unchanged in Olympic and world champions. Finalists and champions at the Olympic Games and FINA World Championships reduced the sex difference with increasing race distance.

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Technology & swimming: 3 steps beyond physiology

Cited by 22 publications

References 13 publications

A comparison of medley and freestyle performance for national and international swimmers between 1994 and 2011

A comparison of medley and freestyle performance for national and international swimmers between 1994 and 2011

Effect of Swim Cap Model on Passive Drag

Changes in sex difference in swimming speed in finalists at FINA World Championships and the Olympic Games from 1992 to 2013

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