Technology of the Li-Ion Batteries

Abstract

585reversible capacity measured after the first or second cycle of the half cell, since it is the capacity that can be delivered during the life of the battery. In any case, the coulombic efficiency after the two first cycles for a battery of interest (i.e., already commercialized or under investigation in research laboratories) is close to 100 %. Negative/Positive Capacity RatioThe negative electrode/positive electrode ratio N/P is also called the balance of the battery. To understand the importance of this parameter, let us first consider the case of a negative electrode with initial capacity 100 mAh with irreversible capacity 10 mAh. This means that, in an experience made on a cell with this electrode and Li-metal as the counter-electrode, the measurements have shown that the formation of the SEI has consumed 10 mAh, so that the capacity delivered by the electrode after formation of the SEI is 90 mAh. For this half-cell, the formation of the SEI has no consequence, and does not limit the capacity of the half-cell, because the metalLi is a reservoir that can provide as much of Li + ions as we need. This, however, is not true for the full cell. To see the effect, let us consider now the full cell with this negative electrode, and a positive electrode with an initial capacity 100 mAh and irreversible capacity 20 mAh, so that its reversible capacity is 80 mAh. During the first charge, the capacity of the positive electrode is just sufficient to allow for the formation of the SEI that consumes 10 mAh, plus fully charge the negative electrode with an amount of Li + ions corresponding to a capacity of 90 mAh. Upon discharging, these Li + ions will be delivered by the negative electrode to the positive electrode, so that only the amount of lithium inside the positive electrode now corresponds to a capacity of 100-10 ¼ 90 mAh. However, a part of them corresponding to the irreversible capacity 20 mAh will be trapped, so that the capacity of the battery will be 90-20 ¼ 70 mAh, while the negative electrode has a larger capacity. Therefore, the formation of the SEI has now contributed to a decrease of the reversible capacity of the full cell.It might be tempting to increase the amount of active product in the positive electrode to increase the capacity of the battery. However, this may be not a good idea. Let us assume for instance that we increase the capacity of the positive electrode by 50 %. Then the initial capacity of the positive electrode is 150 mAh, and the irreversible capacity is 30 mAh. During the first charge, 100 mAh out of the 150 mAh available will be delivered by the positive electrode like before. Actually, if the charge is stopped at this stage, then, during the first discharge, 90 mAh will return to the negative electrode. The amount of lithium that the positive electrode can deliver in the second charge corresponds to a capacity of 140-30 ¼ 110 mAh capacity available to proceed reversibly upon cycling, larger than the 90 mAh that the negative electrode can absorb, so that the reversible capacity is sim...

A Systematic Review of Battery Recycling Technologies: Advances, Challenges, and Future Prospects

“…Primary batteries (Figure 1) are non-rechargeable batteries commonly used in applications where long shelf life, portability, and low self-discharge are critical [17]. They have a one-time use lifecycle-once discharged, they cannot be recharged for reuse [18,19].…”

“…They have a one-time use lifecycle-once discharged, they cannot be recharged for reuse [18,19]. Primary batteries are widely used for low-drain electronics, like remote controls, toys, flashlights, and clocks, as well as for novelty greeting cards, laser pointers, and hearing aids [16,17,20]. Some common types of primary batteries include alkaline batteries, zinc-carbon batteries, and lithium primary batteries, and these are discussed as follows:…”

“…Lithium primary batteries use lithium metal as the anode and have non-aqueous organic electrolytes [17]. Lithium batteries offer high energy density, 3 V voltage, wide temperature operation (−55 to 150 • C), and long shelf life (10-15 years) [17,20].…”

“…Lithium primary batteries use lithium metal as the anode and have non-aqueous organic electrolytes [17]. Lithium batteries offer high energy density, 3 V voltage, wide temperature operation (−55 to 150 • C), and long shelf life (10-15 years) [17,20]. They are commonly used in watches, calculators, thermometers, cardiac pacemakers, and other specialty applications [1,17,20].…”

“…Lithium batteries offer high energy density, 3 V voltage, wide temperature operation (−55 to 150 • C), and long shelf life (10-15 years) [17,20]. They are commonly used in watches, calculators, thermometers, cardiac pacemakers, and other specialty applications [1,17,20]. Popular chemistries are lithium-manganese dioxide (LiMnO 2 ) and lithium-iron disulfide (LiFeS 2 ) [1,17].…”