Temporal and spatial distribution of cattle anthrax outbreaks in Zimbabwe between 1967 and 2006

Abstract

This retrospective study aimed to assess the spatial and temporal distribution of anthrax and to identify risk areas in Zimbabwe. The data were extracted from the monthly and annual reports of the Division of Livestock Production and Veterinary Services for the period 1967 to 2006. The data were analyzed in relation to temporal and spatial factors. The hot-dry season was found to be significantly (X 2 = 847.8, P< 0.001) associated with the occurrence of anthrax in cattle and the disease was found to be approximately three times more likely to occur during this season compared to other seasons. Anthrax outbreaks demonstrated a gradual temporal increase from an annual mean of 3 outbreaks for the 5-year period (1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971) to 42 for the 5-year period (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006). Similarly, the data demonstrated a spatial increase in the number of districts affected by anthrax between 1967 and 2006, with 12 districts affected for the 10-year period (1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975)(1976) that expanded to 42 districts for the 10-year period (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006). The majority of outbreaks (83.7%) were recorded in rural areas and eleven districts were found to be at a higher risk than others. There is need to develop differential vaccination strategy, other control strategies and preventive recommendations to reduce anthrax in high risk districts. In the medium to low risk districts, maintenance of effective surveillance systems and improvement of awareness is very important to detect and contain outbreaks early.

Awareness and Attitude Toward Zoonoses with Particular Reference to Anthrax Among Cattle Owners in Selected Rural Communities of Zimbabwe

“…In support of earlier observations on cattle anthrax outbreaks in Zimbabwe (Chikerema et al 2012), cattle owners indicated that anthrax is a hot-season disease. Focus group discussions revealed cattle owners' observations on an increased trend of cattle anthrax outbreaks, which they attributed to cessation of government-sponsored annual cattle vaccinations that used to be conducted by the government.…”

“…On the basis of the mean number of outbreaks per district, mean number of years of occurrence, and mean number years of recurrence of cattle anthrax outbreaks over a 40-year period (1967-2006), administrative districts in Zimbabwe have been classified as high-, medium-, and low-risk anthrax districts (Chikerema et al 2012) (Fig. 1).…”

“…Although a few relevant studies in communal areas have focused on risk factors in the face of human anthrax outbreaks (Mwenye et al 1996, Gombe et al 2010, information is not available regarding the level of public awareness and the risk of anthrax in these rural communities. Thus, the objective of this study was to assess cattle owners' awareness, perceptions, and attitudes toward zoonoses with particular reference to anthrax in low-, medium-, and high-anthrax (Chikerema et al 2012) outbreak settings. It is envisaged that the baseline information generated will facilitate the development of effective guidelines and policies for controlling anthrax outbreaks.…”

Soil ingestion, nutrition and the seasonality of anthrax in herbivores of Etosha National Park

“…The timing of anthrax outbreaks within a particular locality tend to have a seasonal signal, although the season during which most cases occur varies from locality to locality. Outbreaks consisting primarily of grazing wildlife or livestock occur in seasonal or weather conditions along a spectrum from drought (Fox et al 1977, Shiferaw et al 2002, Muoria et al 2007, Wafula et al 2008, Hampson et al 2011, to hot dry seasons often following years of unusually high rainfall (Rees et al 1977, Gates et al 1995, Dragon et al 1999, Turner et al 1999, Himsworth and Argue 2008, Chikerema et al 2012, to transition periods between dry-wet or wet-dry conditions (Fox et al 1973, Parkinson et al 2003, Siamudaala et al 2006, Mongoh et al 2008, to wet season outbreaks (Lindeque and Turnbull 1994, Durrheim et al 2009, Chikerema et al 2012. Some authors do not specify the time scale in which the described weather patterns occur in relation to the outbreak.…”

Prevention, detection, and response to anthrax outbreak in Northern Tanzania using one health approach: A case study of Selela ward in Monduli district

“…In Zimbabwe, during 1995-2005, a total of 282 outbreaks and 2978 animal cases (livestock and wildlife) were reported [16]. Anthrax is one of the major threats to animals and humans in the Western part of Zambia, in 2010, it affected 45 cattle and three humans [17].…”