The Anatomy of the Nasolabial Fold: The Keystone of the Smiling Mechanism

Rubin, Leonard R.; Mishriki, Yehia Y.; Lee, Gene

doi:10.1097/00006534-199902000-00051

Cited by 70 publications

(29 citation statements)

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“…However, not all differences are simply a matter of contrast in facial features. Notably, the lack of cheek fat means that the nasiolabial furrow, which is used to help identify several AUs in humans and is also important for expression recognition (Rubin, 1999), is absent in the chimpanzee and thus discriminating these movements is challenging.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

et al. 2006

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A comparative perspective has remained central to the study of human facial expressions since Darwin's [(1872Darwin's [( /1998. The expression of the emotions in man and animals (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press] insightful observations on the presence and significance of cross-species continuities and species-unique phenomena. However, cross-species comparisons are often difficult to draw due to methodological limitations. We report the application of a common methodology, the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to examine facial movement across two species of hominoids, namely humans and chimpanzees. FACS [Ekman & Friesen (1978). Facial action coding system. CA: Consulting Psychology Press] has been employed to identify the repertoire of human facial movements. We demonstrate that FACS can be applied to other species, but highlight that any modifications must be based on both underlying anatomy and detailed observational analysis of movements. Here we describe the ChimpFACS and use it to compare the repertoire of facial movement in chimpanzees and humans. While the underlying mimetic musculature shows minimal differences, important differences in facial morphology impact upon the identification and detection of related surface appearance changes across these two species.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

et al. 2006

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“…Contraction of the facial muscles gives facial expression by moving the skin. Each facial muscle is made up out of 75-150 muscle fibres (Rubin, 1999). They are arranged into parallel bundles, which run from origin to insertion (Happak et al, 1997).…”

Section: Facial Muscle Characteristicsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Current opportunities and challenges in skeletal muscle tissue engineering

Koning¹,

Harmsen²,

Luyn³

et al. 2009

J Tissue Eng Regen Med

144

108

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The purpose of this article is to give a concise review of the current state of the art in tissue engineering (TE) of skeletal muscle and the opportunities and challenges for future clinical applicability. The endogenous progenitor cells of skeletal muscle, i.e. satellite cells, show a high proneness to muscular differentiation, in particular exhibiting the same characteristics and function as its donor muscle. This suggests that it is important to use an appropriate progenitor cell, especially in TE facial muscles, which have a exceptional anatomical and fibre composition compared to other skeletal muscle. Muscle TE requires an instructive scaffold for structural support and to regulate the proliferation and differentiation of muscle progenitor cells. Current literature suggests that optimal scaffolding could comprise of a fibrin gel and cultured monolayers of muscle satellite cells obtained through the cell sheet technique. Tissue-engineered muscle constructs require an adequate connection to the vascular system for efficient transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products. Finally, functional and clinically applicable muscle constructs depend on adequate neuromuscular junctions with neural cells. To reach this, it seems important to apply optimal electrical, chemotropic and mechanical stimulation during engineering and discover other factors that influence its formation. Thus, in addition to approaches for myogenesis, we discuss the current status of strategies for angiogenesis and neurogenesis of TE muscle constructs and the significance for future clinical use.

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“…The human face contains 23 paired facial muscles and 1 unpaired, the orbicularis oris, which are all unique from other skeletal muscles in that they attach at least one side to the skin, making facial expression possible through this skin movement [38]. Each facial muscle consists of 75-150 muscle fibers [39] arranged in parallel bundles running from origin to insertion [40] and allowing for Type I (slow twitch) and Type II (fast twitch) muscle fibers to be distinguished as well [41]. Slow twitch muscle fibers are able to work for a long time without getting exhausted due to their ability to produce large amounts of energy at a slow pace.…”

Section: Facial Muscle Characteristicsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cartilage and facial muscle tissue engineering and regeneration: a mini review

et al. 2018

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Cartilage and facial muscle tissue provide basic yet vital functions for homeostasis throughout the body, making human survival and function highly dependent upon these somatic components. When cartilage and facial muscle tissues are harmed or completely destroyed due to disease, trauma, or any other degenerative process, homeostasis and basic body functions consequently become negatively affected. Although most cartilage and cells can regenerate themselves after any form of the aforementioned degenerative disease or trauma, the highly specific characteristics of facial muscles and the specific structures of the cells and tissues required for the proper function cannot be exactly replicated by the body itself. Thus, some form of cartilage and bone tissue engineering is necessary for proper regeneration and function. The use of progenitor cells for this purpose would be very beneficial due to their highly adaptable capabilities, as well as their ability to utilize a high diffusion rate, making them ideal for the specific nature and functions of cartilage and facial muscle tissue. Going along with this, once the progenitor cells are obtained, applying them to a scaffold within the oral cavity in the affected location allows them to adapt to the environment and create cartilage or facial muscle tissue that is specific to the form and function of the area. The principal function of the cartilage and tissue is vascularization, which requires a specific form that allows them to aid the proper flow of bodily functions related to the oral cavity such as oxygen flow and removal of waste. Facial muscle is also very thin, making its reproduction much more possible. Taking all these into consideration, this review aims to highlight and expand upon the primary benefits of the cartilage and facial muscle tissue engineering and regeneration, focusing on how these processes are performed outside of and within the body.

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The Anatomy of the Nasolabial Fold: The Keystone of the Smiling Mechanism

Cited by 70 publications

References 0 publications

A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

A Cross-species Comparison of Facial Morphology and Movement in Humans and Chimpanzees Using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

Current opportunities and challenges in skeletal muscle tissue engineering

Cartilage and facial muscle tissue engineering and regeneration: a mini review

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