The Antimicrobial Peptide LL‐37 as a Predictor Biomarker for Periodontitis with the Presence and Absence of Smoking: A Case‐Control Study

Abstract

Background. A major issue is finding a valid biomarker able to diagnose periodontal disease with the presence and absence of risk factors. Indeed, the association between smoking and periodontal diseases and its impact on the manifestation of antimicrobial peptides has been delineated in clinical and epidemiological investigations. The antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin (LL-37) is pivotal in preserving periodontal health. Objectives. This investigation examines and contrasts the levels of cathelicidin in the saliva of smokers and nonsmokers of periodontitis. The study also seeks to establish this biomarker’s diagnostic ability to differentiate between periodontal health and disease. Materials and Methods. The study involved the collection of unstimulated saliva samples from 160 participants, comprising 80 patients diagnosed with periodontitis (40 of whom were smokers and 40 were nonsmokers) and 80 periodontitis-free individuals (40 smokers and 40 nonsmokers). The clinical periodontal parameters were assessed, including recording the probing pocket depth, the level of clinical attachment, and the percentage of bleeding on probing. Subsequently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were conducted to quantify the protein levels of LL-37 in the saliva samples obtained from the subjects mentioned above. Results. The highest level of salivary LL-37 was found in the nonsmoker periodontitis (NSP) patients, followed by the group of smoker periodontitis (SP) and then nonsmoker healthy (NSH) group, while the lowest level was found in the healthy smoker (HS) group. At the same time, the LL-37 seems to be a very good biomarker in differentiating periodontal health from disease with the presence and absence of smoking. Conclusion. Periodontitis results in a significant elevation of salivary LL-37 levels in smoker and nonsmoker patients compared to healthy individuals. These levels are positively correlated with the periodontal parameter and can serve as a valuable diagnostic tool to predict periodontitis, whereas smoking significantly reduces these levels.

Effect of Occupational Stress on Periodontitis According to the Salivary RANKL Level Among Iraqi Employees

“…[1][2][3] Several studies findings have found that periodontitis does not influence all populations similarly; some people have risk conditions or factors that make them susceptible to developing periodontal diseases, such as the virulence of the microorganism, immunological, and genetic mechanisms, and host environmental conditions, mainly smoking, psychosocial stress, and lifestyle factors. [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] Stress is a psychological and physiological response effect of environmental variation and noxious stimulation, leading to disease if extensive. 12 Stress is not harmful if a person has active coping behaviours and can control his environment.…”