The application of Goal Setting Theory to goal setting interventions in sport: a systematic review

Abstract

Goal setting is one of the most frequently used mental skills in sports, and Goal Setting Theory has been the most prominent theoretical framework upon which goal setting interventions are based. The present study provides a systematic review examining how the tenets of GST have been applied to goal setting interventions in sport. A total of 27 peer-reviewed studies written in English, which implemented goal setting interventions with athletes in a sport-specific, applied (i.e. non-laboratory) context, were examined. The studies included athletes from a range of individual and team sports. The majority of these studies were characterized by their small sample size and strong focus on performance as an outcome measure. Overall, there was inconsistent application of, and mixed evidence supporting theorizing around, the goal characteristics (goal difficulty, specificity, proximity, source, and type) and moderators (ability, commitment, feedback, complexity, and resources) suggested in GST. As the first systematic review of goal setting interventions focused exclusively on athletes in applied sport contexts, the present review provides insight for athletes, coaches, sport psychology practitioners, and researchers. Applied implications and future research directions (e.g. testing individualized goal setting interventions) are provided.

Athletes and Coaches Through COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative View of Goal Management

“…If we consider these findings in comparison with our results and in the framework of the goal setting theory, we shall remember that the specificity and precision, with which we define a goal, are crucial for the quality of the performance, as well as for the allocation of attention and the necessary motivation [42,52]. Moreover, in their recent review, Jeong et al [15] reminded that Locke and Latham [11] suggested that goal specificity should be combined with goal difficulty for effective goal setting. Our third overarching theme, "Trying to hold on", reflects Ntoumanis and Sedikides [7] concept of 'goal persistence'.…”

“…Moreover it was found that self-avoidance goals (where the athletes try to avoid self-based incompetence) are not always maladaptive, and that, in the situation of confinement, it might be beneficial to shift among multiple goals. While informative, this study fails to answer Jeong et al's [15] call for future research to consider empirical approaches that are based on coaches' experiential knowledge and the recommendation to include qualitative approaches to identify practitioners', coaches', and athletes' perspectives on goal setting. In a similar fashion, to date research investigating the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in sport mainly adopted a quantitative approach, with only few exceptions [20], despite a growing interest of -and need for -qualitative studies in the field of sport psychology [21].…”

“…Also, it is vital that coaches consider how their behavior can promote adaptive goals striving, both through redefinition of few specific goals (process-and performance-oriented goals), as well as through their everyday engagement and communication with their athletes [14,66]. Indeed, coaches have a key influence in the goal setting process [44], however, there is little evidence to support that assigned goals result in greater goal achievement than self-set or participatively-set goals [15]. Therefore, according to the self-concordance model [16] coaches should provide appropriate feedback regarding goal progress, guiding effort and mobilizing resources to the desired goal.…”

“…In a similar fashion, to date research investigating the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in sport mainly adopted a quantitative approach, with only few exceptions [20], despite a growing interest of -and need for -qualitative studies in the field of sport psychology [21]. In line with Jeong et al's [15] suggestion for further qualitative studies on goal setting, the present study aimed to explore Italian coaches' and athletes' experiences of goal setting adjustment during the first pandemic lockdown (Spring 2020) adopting a qualitative stance. The research question guiding the study was, 'how has the first emergency lockdown influenced athletes and coaches' experiences of goal setting adjustment?'…”

“…However, in their study the authors recognized some limitations such as the limited sample, the involvement of only female participants, and the need to also include their coaches and investigate different levels of expertise. A recent systematic review of goal setting interventions in sport focused on athletes, found inconclusive evidence and limited support for several aspects of goal setting theory in applied sport contexts [15]. The authors suggested involving a wider range of theories of goal setting to provide a more comprehensive understanding of this area.…”