The association of parenting practices with toddlers’ dietary intake and BMI, and the moderating role of general parenting and child temperament

Abstract

Objective: The objective was to examine the association between parenting practices, toddler’s dietary intake and BMI. In addition, potential moderation of these associations by general parenting and child temperament was examined. Design: The current cross-sectional study assessed parenting practices using the Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire, general parenting using the Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire, child temperament using the Child Behavior Check List, and children’s dietary intake through parental questionnaires. Children’s weight and length were objectively measured to determine BMI z-scores. Associations were examined using multiple linear regression analyses. Moderation was examined using interaction terms. Setting: Home setting. Participants: 393 Dutch toddlers (age 1–3 years) and their parents recruited through fifty childcare centres and preschools in the Netherlands. Results: Various practices were related to children’s diet and BMI. For instance, the availability of healthy foods is the most important predictor of healthy dietary intake (e.g. β = –0·35 for sweets; β = 0·18 for fruit). The association of availability with a healthier diet was strongest when parents scored low on the positive parenting style dimensions, including nurturance, structure and/or behavioural control. In addition, it seemed that a high availability of healthy foods and low availability of unhealthy foods is especially beneficial for children showing withdrawal/depressive, anxious or overactive behaviour, while encouraging balance and variety is not beneficial for these children. All other practices were related to children’s diet and/or BMI as well. Conclusions: The findings underline the importance of viewing the impact of parenting practices in the context of general parenting and child temperament.

Associations between Children’s Genetic Susceptibility to Obesity, Infant’s Appetite and Parental Feeding Practices in Toddlerhood

“…Other studies suggest that parental feeding practices may differ according to child's sex and that, for the same parental feeding practice, child's response may depend on their sex [18,19]. Moreover, several cross-sectional studies have found that coercive parental feeding practices, such as restriction or pressure to eat, are related to child's weight status (e.g., parental restrictive feeding practices are associated to higher child's BMI, whereas parental pressure to eat is associated to lower child's BMI) [20][21][22], child's intake (e.g., parental restrictive practices are associated with increased child's energy intake) [23][24][25] or eating behavior (e.g., parental pressure to eat may enhance food dislikes) [26,27]. Some longitudinal studies found that coercive feeding practices led to lower childhood BMI [28,29].…”

Psychometric properties of the item-reduced version of the comprehensive general parenting questionnaire for caregivers of preschoolers in a Finnish context

“…It was aimed at parents of children aged 5 to 13 years, and it has been used as such to examine associations between the five parenting constructs and children’s health behaviors [ 31 ]. Some studies used only the “positive” parenting constructs (nurturance, structure and behavioral control) in examining associations between parenting practices, health behaviors and BMI and the role of general parenting, which meant that the two negative (control constructs (coercive control and overprotection) were unexplored [ 27 , 32 ]. A version for parents of children aged one and four to five was later developed, which included 69 items [ 33 ].…”

“…This contextual model in which parenting style is a moderator has been brought up in several studies examining the associations between parenting practices and children's EBRBs [8,[19][20][21]. Although some studies have found that parenting style is moderating the association between parenting practices and children's and adolescent's food intake or BMI [22][23][24][25][26], to the best of our knowledge, only one study has examined young children (one-to three-year-olds) [27].…”

Maternal feeding practices and toddlers’ fruit and vegetable consumption: results from the DIT-Coombe Hospital birth cohort in Ireland

“…Parents play a crucial role in shaping children's early experience with foods [16,17]. Mothers are the major caregivers of young children, and maternal feeding practices may play the most essential role in toddlers' dietary intake and weight status [18].…”