“…However, transport facilities face numerous issues, including limited resources and poor management. Therefore, several traffic models have been developed based on theories and experiments, including microscopic models [ [1] , [2] , [3] , [4] , [5] , [6] , [7] ], macroscopic models [ [8] , [9] , [10] , [11] , [12] , [13] ], lattice hydrodynamical models [ [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [18] ], and cellular automaton (CA) models [ [19] , [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] ]. Most of these models have been validated under an ideal traffic flow environment with homogeneous vehicle sizes and capabilities, which could not ensure an actual traffic flow field.…”