The Beneficial Effects of Anticipating Anxiety-Related Symptoms: An Investigation of Paradoxical-Success Imagery in the Laboratory

Abstract

This study investigated the efficacy of a paradoxical imagery strategy that consisted of participants imaging themselves experiencing symptoms characteristic of competitive anxiety, prior to executing a golf-chip shot. Forty male golfers of moderate skill level participated in a twoday experiment conducted in the laboratory. Wegner's (1994) theory of ironic processes of mental control served as the theoretical framework. In addition to the paradoxical component, the imagery technique (paradoxical-success imagery) of interest included additional substantiated components: cognitive specific (i.e., skill), motivational general-mastery (i.e., confidence/focus), kinesthetic, and positive-outcome imagery (Martin et al., 1999). Participants employing the paradoxical imagery strategy showed significant performance improvement in both competitive and pressure situations compared to pre-treatment levels. The findings suggest that paradoxical-success imagery can potentially facilitate performance, when combined with appropriate imagery components and training. Practical implications, potential drawbacks, and suggestions for future research with paradoxical imagery are discussed.

Paradoxical-Success Imagery in the Field

“…Graham Jones, Sheldon Hanton, and colleagues have asserted in a number of papers and studies that it is more advantageous for athletes to focus efforts towards reframing the interpretation of anxiety symptoms from a debilitative to a facilitative perspective as opposed to learning techniques designed to reduce anxiety (e.g., Hanton & Jones, 1999a;Hanton & Jones, 1999b;Jones, 1995;Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002;Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2007;Jones, Hanton, & Swain, 1994;Jones, Swain, & Hardy, 1993;Mellalieu, Hanton, & Thomas, 2009;Thomas, Maynard, & Hanton, 2007). A number of applied studies utilizing imagery within mentalskills training packages have offered support for their argument (e.g., de la Peña, 2009;Hanton & Jones, 1999b;Mamassis & Doganis, 2004;Mellalieu et al, 2009;Thomas et al, 2007). However, the imagery scripts implemented among these studies have varied.…”

“…More recently, de la Peña (2009) and Mellalieu et al (2009) demonstrated the benefits of including anxiety-related symptoms (i.e., motivational general-arousal imagery, Martin et al, 1999) within the imagery scripts. For example, de la Peña (2009) demonstrated that golfers, who imaged themselves performing effectively and confidently with symptoms characteristic of competitive anxiety, were able to improve performance in a golf-chipping task conducted in the laboratory during both competitive and pressure situations. In a study conducted in the field, Mellalieu et al (2009) trained five rugby players to regularly image successful performance during important games with concurrent anxiety-related symptoms present.…”

“…For example, Hall et al (1999) were critical of Carter and Kelly's (1997) study, in which detrimental effects (high somatic anxiety and low confidence) were demonstrated with a percentage of intramural basketball players who imaged themselves experiencing symptoms characteristic of anxiety prior to shooting a free-throw shot. Their criticisms followed Janelle's (1999) suggestions to research mental-skills techniques designed to anticipate anxiety-related symptoms and reduce the The Carter and Kelly (1997), de la Peña (2009), and Mellalieu et al (2009) studies are the only known sport research studies that have investigated the effects of including symptoms characteristic of competitive anxiety (i.e., paradoxical imagery) into imagery scripts. In the current study, we tested paradoxical-success imagery (de la Peña, 2009) in the field with club-soccer players from a southwestern university.…”

“…Their criticisms followed Janelle's (1999) suggestions to research mental-skills techniques designed to anticipate anxiety-related symptoms and reduce the The Carter and Kelly (1997), de la Peña (2009), and Mellalieu et al (2009) studies are the only known sport research studies that have investigated the effects of including symptoms characteristic of competitive anxiety (i.e., paradoxical imagery) into imagery scripts. In the current study, we tested paradoxical-success imagery (de la Peña, 2009) in the field with club-soccer players from a southwestern university. Participants learned paradoxical-success imagery in a manner similar to that employed in the de la Peña (2009) study.…”

“…Although de la Peña (2009) did not demonstrate statistically significant findings (relative to control groups) with these measures, we contend that a longer period of training, as well as technique rehearsal, is necessary for increases in self-confidence and directional interpretation of anxiety to become apparent. Regarding anxiety intensity, we predicted that because participants imaged themselves performing confidently (motivational generalmastery imagery) and effectively (positive outcome imagery), anxiety intensity would not increase following training even though participants also imaged experiencing anxiety-related symptoms prior to competing (de la Peña, 2009;Mellalieu et al, 2009). Additionally, two moderating variables were assessed, trait anxiety and the propensity to interpret anxiety as either debilitative or facilitative to performance.…”