The benefits of seed enrichment on sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) populations, after 17 years, in semi-arid Western Australia

Abstract

Initially, the size-class structure of 1067 natural sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) trees and seedlings, growing in populations at three semi-arid sites (Burnerbinmah, Ninghan and Goongarrie) in Western Australia, was measured during 1996–97. These same populations, and any new sandalwood seedlings and small trees that had established after 1996–97, were measured again after 17 years (2013). Size-class structure was assessed by measuring over-bark stem diameter at 150 mm above the ground. Populations of sandalwood trees at the Burnerbinmah and Ninghan sites failed to regenerate and, after 17 years, they contained only 0–3% small trees and 0–2% seedlings. Their overall population size declined by 21–24% and, combined with recruitment failure, these natural stands of sandalwood may largely disappear within 50–60 years. At the Goongarrie site, the proportion of large trees within the natural population increased from 58% to 82%. The proportion of small trees was constant at 13–16%, while seedlings declined from 29% to 2%. The population reduced by 35%, mainly due to high seedling mortality. Although the population was in decline, there appeared to be enough small trees and seedlings to maintain the population longer than at both the Burnerbinmah and Ninghan sites. In a second study, 16 640 sandalwood seeds were sown at the same three sites during 1996–97, and then assessed for germination, survival, growth and fruit production over 17 years. Sandalwood germination and growth were compared between locations, fencing treatments and land systems. Seed enrichment was successful at each site with 27–45% germination and 6–20% survival (from germinated seeds) after 17 years. The overall seedling survival rates (from total seeds sown) ranged from 2.1% to 5.2%. Mean stem diameter of seedlings was significantly larger at Goongarrie (37 mm) than at both Burnerbinmah and Ninghan (20–22 mm) sites. Grazing significantly affected the performance of sandalwood seedlings at an age of 17 years at the Ninghan site. At this site, seedling survival (from germinated seeds) was 16% in the fenced plots compared with only 6% in the unfenced plots. Mean stem diameter in the fenced plots (24 mm) was also significantly greater than in the unfenced plots (11 mm). Land systems did not affect survival of sandalwood seedlings at the Burnerbinmah site but had a significant impact at the Goongarrie site after 17 years. Seedling survival was significantly greater on the hills and ridges than those growing on the plains with granite and red sand plains. Seed-enrichment programs are recommended to improve long-term regeneration and sustainability of sandalwood trees.

Prolific or precarious: a review of the status of Australian sandalwood (

“…Sandalwood is considered the slowest growing Santalum species, taking up to 90-115 years to reach the ecologically mature size sought after commercially (with an over-bark trunk diameter of .127 mm, at 150 mm aboveground level) in the arid and semi-arid rangelands (Loneragan 1990). Based on annual stem diameter growth rates of approximately 1 mm per year (FPC 2016), or as little as 0.5 mm per year (Brand et al 2014), some trees have been estimated to be more than 250-300 years old. Sandalwood is hemiparasitic and, while attaching its roots via haustoria to a wide range of host species (Fox 1997;Woodall and Robinson 2002), exhibits a recognised preference for nitrogen-fixing Acacia species (Herbert 1925;Loneragan 1990).…”

Stimulation of Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) oil production using multiple treatments

“…Sandalwood's most valuable asset, however, is its aromatic oil (Kumar et al, 2012). The oil is obtained from the heartwood of the tree and occurs in different sections of the tree (Brand, Sawyer, & Evans, 2014), however it is most concentrated in the root and butt (150 mm above ground level to the below-ground root crown) of the sandalwood tree (Brand & Pronk, 2011). Sandalwood oil is used in perfumes, soaps, and cosmetics.…”

“…Sandalwood cannot regenerate via coppice (Kealley, 1991). Historically, the native population has been threatened through clearing activities, fire, poor seed dispersal, grazing animals, and drought (Brand, Sawyer, & Evans, 2014;Kealley, 1989;Loneragan, 1990).…”

“…From this flower, a red-brown fruit with leathery skin is developed (Kealley, 1989). Germination occurs after sufficient autumn and winter rains (Brand et al, 2014) but the survival rate is very low; typically only 1-5% of seed germinate and establish successfully in wild plots, and less than 20% in plantations (Kealley, 1991).…”

When losing your nuts increases your reproductive success: sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) nut caching by the woylie (Bettongia penicillata)

“…While the transportation of the seeds away from the parent plant and the subsequent burial of the seeds near potential host plants are the primary means of facilitating regeneration (Brand et al 2014), it is important to investigate the relationship of the woylie and sandalwood to determine whether the reintroduction of woylies can improve recruitment as natural regeneration is low (Sawyer 2013;Brand et al 2014). In this study, we examined the relationship between the woylie and Western Australian sandalwood to determine whether woylies play a role in the distribution and recruitment of sandalwood by caching the seeds.…”