The breeding biology of erect-crested penguins, Eudyptes sclateri: Hormones, behavior, obligate brood reduction and conservation

Abstract

Erect-crested penguins are the least studied of all penguins. They breed on two isolated subantarctic island groups, the Antipodes and Bounty Islands. Sporadic nest counts indicate a dramatic decline in numbers of erect-crested penguins over the last 50 years. Here we present data from a study undertaken in 1998 on the breeding biology, behavior and hormones of erect-crested penguins. It represents, even today, by far the most detailed data available on this species. The penguins exhibited extreme reversed egg-size dimorphism, whereby the first-laid A-egg was much smaller than the second-laid B-egg. A-eggs were lost before (42.3%) or on (37.8%) the day the B-egg was laid, and none survived more than 7 days after that. The penguins were in a low state of reproductive readiness, as evidenced by low levels of copulation, fighting, and testosterone in males during the courtship/laying period when, curiously, plasma levels of testosterone were at least as high in females. The laying interval (5.4 days) is the longest recorded for any penguin species, and incubation was highly variable until clutch completion. Most nests (91.2%) contained no nesting material and eggs were laid directly onto the ground. A-eggs were lost mainly by rolling out of the nest. However, even when prevented from doing so by an experimental manipulation, A-eggs survived no longer than those in control nests. Testosterone levels in males increased after clutch completion, when they remained in attendance at the nest for up to 13 days, despite females assuming most of the incubation duties. The bills of males were significantly larger than those of females and probably help with guarding the nest. We discuss explanations for obligate brood reduction in crested penguins and the options for conservation in light of our census results, which indicate that this enigmatic penguin species could be in trouble.

Opportunity nest egg: insights on the nutritional ecology, life history and captive management of three species of kiwi (Apteryxspp.) chick from Operation Nest Egg zoo hand-rearing records

“…Within Brown kiwi ( A. mantelli ) we identified no differences among the first and second clutch, or the first and second egg, or sex of the embryo in egg size, chick hatch mass, or chick development time. This suggests that kiwi, unlike species of crested penguins (Davis et al 2022), gulls (Saino et al 2010), or wrens (Bowers et al 2014), have not evolved to apply even subtle brood reduction or sex-specific nutritional allocation strategies to their offspring. Instead, hens appear to invest nutritional resources equally in all their offspring, regardless of time of year, and regardless of the short duration between the first and second egg (see Fuller 1990).…”