The Cell Biology Neuropeptide Hormones

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Targeting GH and IGF-1 in the Management of Obesity: Insights from the Interplay between These Hormones and Metabolism

“…Although relatively small, the hypothalamus comprises less than 2% of the total brain and is located in the lower part of the diencephalon. It receives diverse signals from other brain regions and subsequently initiates behavioral responses to various environmental stimuli [4]. The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating the endocrine system by releasing hormones into circulation, which travel to other endocrine glands to control their hormone production.…”

“…In the first pathway, neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus synthesize hormones such as oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which are directly transported to the posterior pituitary gland via extended neuron fibers and axons. In the second pathway, the hypothalamus secretes hormones that are produced and stored in neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus, which are then transported to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland via the hypophyseal portal system [4,28].…”

“…POMC neurons secrete several peptides, including the anorectic peptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), which acts via melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) to reduce appetite and food intake [31,32]. The PVN also expresses melanocortin receptors 3 and 4 and NPY receptors, and it secretes neuropeptides such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which exerts an anorexigenic action [4,33]. Furthermore, afferent signals, including leptin from adipose tissue, insulin from the pancreas, ghrelin, and peptide YY from the gastrointestinal tract, modulate the anorexigenic centers of the hypothalamus [4].…”

“…The PVN also expresses melanocortin receptors 3 and 4 and NPY receptors, and it secretes neuropeptides such as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which exerts an anorexigenic action [4,33]. Furthermore, afferent signals, including leptin from adipose tissue, insulin from the pancreas, ghrelin, and peptide YY from the gastrointestinal tract, modulate the anorexigenic centers of the hypothalamus [4]. Output signals from the PVN and lateral hypothalamus (LH) activate the sympathetic nervous system or the vagus nerve via the autonomic nervous system.…”

“…It is characterized by an excess accumulation of body fat resulting from an ongoing positive energy balance (a higher intake of calories than expenditure) and insufficient physical activity, which disrupts the energy balance and normal physiological homeostasis [2]. The fundamental components of energy balance include energy intake, energy expenditure, and energy storage, which interact in a complex manner to affect body weight and the fat ratio [3,4]. The management of obesity is best approached through a combination of lifestyle modifications and physical activity.…”