2021
DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210215123914
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The Complexity of Secondary Cascade Consequent to Traumatic Brain Injury: Pathobiology and Potential Treatments

Abstract: : According to the World Health Organization, Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the major cause of death and disability and will surpass the other diseases by the year 2020. Patients who suffer TBI face many difficulties which negatively affect their social and personal life. TBI patients suffer from changes in mood, impulsivity, poor social judgment and memory deficits. Both open and closed head injuries have their own consequences. Open head injury associated problems are specific in nature e.g. loss of motor … Show more

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Cited by 18 publications
(8 citation statements)
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“…In addition, reports of memory problems, confusion, and difficulty falling asleep increased over time, which may be attributed to the secondary injury process of TBI resulting from blood-brain barrier disruption. Blood-brain barrier damage impacts solute regulation, which over time may result in secondary injury processes such as cellular edema (e.g., cytotoxic and vasogenic), cumulative neuroinflammation and neuronal dysfunction, and glial scarring, resulting in necrosis or apoptosis (Khatri et al, 2021). Sleep initiation is often impaired following damage to the basal forebrain; thus, insomnia may be a common complaint in TBI (Viola-Saltzman & Watson, 2012).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…In addition, reports of memory problems, confusion, and difficulty falling asleep increased over time, which may be attributed to the secondary injury process of TBI resulting from blood-brain barrier disruption. Blood-brain barrier damage impacts solute regulation, which over time may result in secondary injury processes such as cellular edema (e.g., cytotoxic and vasogenic), cumulative neuroinflammation and neuronal dysfunction, and glial scarring, resulting in necrosis or apoptosis (Khatri et al, 2021). Sleep initiation is often impaired following damage to the basal forebrain; thus, insomnia may be a common complaint in TBI (Viola-Saltzman & Watson, 2012).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Respiration rate and mechanical ventilation use were associated with mortality in the proposed TBI-IHM nomogram. Compared to patients who did not have hospital-acquired pneumonia, those with hospital-acquired pneumonia had worse outcomes and experienced elevated intracranial pressure ( 4 ). There was a significant association between ventilator-associated pneumonia, prolonged ICU stays, and mechanical ventilation durations ( 22 ).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Approximately 64–74 million people sustain TBI annually ( 3 ). Mild and severe TBI affects ~55.9 million and 5.48 million individuals, respectively ( 4 ). Furthermore, TBI is estimated to contribute to a third of all US injury-related deaths (30.5%) ( 5 ).…”
Section: Introductionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…In addition, oxidative stress has been well recognized as a common denominator of both brain injury and TBI-related neurodegenerative disease ( Mackay et al, 2006 ; Ma et al, 2017 ; Dong et al, 2018 ; Cheng et al, 2022 ). Excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species are generated and cause neurotoxicity by increasing intracellular free Ca 2+ and releasing excitatory amino acids ( Khatri et al, 2021 ) or directly inducing peroxidation of lipid, protein, and DNA in the acute phase of TBI ( Ma et al, 2017 ). These findings provide evidence to link chronic inflammation and oxidative stress with TBI-related neurodegenerative pathology.…”
Section: Introductionmentioning
confidence: 99%