The Complexity of the Human–Animal Bond: Empathy, Attachment and Anthropomorphism in Human–Animal Relationships and Animal Hoarding

Abstract

The human–animal relationship is ancient, complex and multifaceted. It may have either positive effects on humans and animals or poor or even negative and detrimental effects on animals or both humans and animals. A large body of literature has investigated the beneficial effects of this relationship in which both human and animals appear to gain physical and psychological benefits from living together in a reciprocated interaction. However, analyzing the literature with a different perspective it clearly emerges that not rarely are human–animal relationships characterized by different forms and levels of discomfort and suffering for animals and, in some cases, also for people. The negative physical and psychological consequences on animals’ well-being may be very nuanced and concealed, but there are situations in which the negative consequences are clear and striking, as in the case of animal violence, abuse or neglect. Empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism are human psychological mechanisms that are considered relevant for positive and healthy relationships with animals, but when dysfunctional or pathological determine physical or psychological suffering, or both, in animals as occurs in animal hoarding. The current work reviews some of the literature on the multifaceted nature of the human–animal relationship; describes the key role of empathy, attachment and anthropomorphism in human–animal relationships; seeks to depict how these psychological processes are distorted and dysfunctional in animal hoarding, with highly detrimental effects on both animal and human well-being.

Examining the Attitudes of Livestock Keepers within Animal Production Systems

“…As far as the individual is concerned, several causes are listed in the literature such as: gender -it is proven that women are more empathetic than men [56]; culture -authors such as Losada-Espinosa et al [33] state that conditions as ethnicity, educational backgrounds, health condition, culture, generational differences and occupational roles condition the quality of attitudes to animals on farms; technical training -"capacity" is the junction of technical skills and knowledge that Hemsworth, adapting from Blumberg and Pringle (1982), considers one of the types that contribute to a good work performance of farm [57]; empathy -together with "attachment" and "anthromorphism" is considered by some authors to be one of the determining factors in human-animal relationships [58]; pleasure in doing their jobthe working conditions and motivation of the workers will affect their performance with the animals [57]; love for animals [59] -a study published in 2018 linked the type of love existing between partners with the type of attitudes towards their pets. It was found that erotic love is linked to positive attitudes, while a playful type of love is related to negative attitudes; and having had contact with animals as a child -E. Paul found out in a study, from 2000, that past and present pet owning was associated with higher levels of animal-oriented empathy but, very interestingly, not humanoriented empathy [60].…”

A time with e-Natureza (e-Nature): a model of nature-based health interventions as a complex adaptive system

“…Emotion is represented by the emotional bond and love for nature, such as talking and reflecting on one’s feelings about it, which can contribute to its conservation. Lastly, Compassion seeks to extend the self to include nature, leading to a moral and ethical concern for nature, for example: making ethical choices of products, caring for plants and animal welfare ( Lumber et al, 2017 ; Choque, 2021 ; Prato-Previde et al, 2022 ).…”

Exploring the Role of Empathy as a Dual Mediator in the Relationship between Human–Pet Attachment and Quality of Life: A Survey Study among Adult Dog Owners

“…The intricate relationship between humans, attachment and animals has been the subject of extensive research, delving into various aspects including deep interactions, empathy development, and animal welfare [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. The term pets has evolved into companion animals to reflect their significant role and emotional connections with humans [ 5 , 6 , 7 ].…”

“…Companion animals provide social support, as evidenced by animal-assisted activities and pet-friendly workplaces, which enhance employee satisfaction and productivity [ 2 , 30 ]. Especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, companion animals served as a form of social support, preserving the identity of their owners in challenging situations [ 2 , 4 , 22 ].…”

“…On the other hand, humanization is the projection of human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors onto animals, often due to a deep attachment. While anthropomorphism can have positive effects on the human–animal relationship, humanization can be detrimental to animal well-being due to unrealistic expectations or inappropriate treatment [ 4 , 35 ]. Understanding these psychological processes is crucial for the overall quality of life of both humans and companion animals [ 2 , 35 ].…”