The Condition of Air Pollution in Kraków, Poland, in 2005–2020, with Health Risk Assessment

Abstract

Aims: Air quality changes with human health risk assessment were investigated. Methods: The measurement results obtained by the Regional Environmental Protection Inspectorate (REPI) in Kraków and our deposited particulate-matter (PM) analysis, as well as United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) methodology of risk assessment were used in the study. Results: Annual pollutant contents kept decreasing, with the exception of O3. However, the permissible annual levels were exceeded in the cases of PM10, PM2.5, and NO2. Increased contents of SO2, CO, C6H6, PM10, and PM2.5, as well as of As, Pb, Cd, Ni, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM particles during winter months indicated that house heating was the source of pollution. Due to no significant change in the monthly NO2 contents, this measurement was used as an indicator of traffic sources of pollution. In winter months, the allowable 24 h PM2.5 and PM10 contents were constantly exceeded. PM was identified as the most significant air pollutant. Enrichment factors revealed that deposited PM was enriched with heavy metals. The potential ecological risk (ERI) was determined to be very high for Cd, considerable for Zn, and low for As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Tl. The total non-carcinogenic risk indices (HQ) for both adults (HQ = 15.0) and children (HQ = 26.4) exceeded the acceptable value of 1. The total carcinogenic risk indices (CR) for both adults (CR = 1.51 × 10−4) and children (CR = 1.77 × 10−4) exceeded the acceptable level of 1 × 10−4. Conclusions: In the years 2005–2020, a general decreasing tendency of annual pollutant contents was observed. However, the permissible contaminant contents were still exceeded. PM2.5, BaP, PM10, and NO2 were determined as the most dangerous pollutants in inhalational pathway.

Application of Geostatistical Analysis and Random Forest for Source Analysis and Human Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Arable Land Soil

“…The health risk assessment of soil pollution with PTEs refers to the assessment of both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks through three routes of exposure, including food intake, skin-surface contact, and breathing inhalation [ 14 ]. This is acknowledged as a significant means for identifying health risks in human conducts and providing hazard proof for final decision people [ 15 ]. Due to significant differences in behavior and physiology, the study population was divided into children and adults [ 16 ].…”

Case Study of Pollution with Particulate Matter in Selected Locations of Polish Cities

“…The poor air quality in Cracow is mainly due to the city's location. According to [23], the inflow of air from the surrounding areas results in a deterioration of the air quality in Cracow. Unfortunately, the city is surrounded by communities where low-quality coal stoves are still the dominant method of heating houses [23].…”

“…According to [23], the inflow of air from the surrounding areas results in a deterioration of the air quality in Cracow. Unfortunately, the city is surrounded by communities where low-quality coal stoves are still the dominant method of heating houses [23]. Measurement locations were selected in the first step and they represent each type of air pollution source.…”

Willingness to pay for the renewable energy sources of the residents of Kraków and their perception of the actions aimed at reducing the level of environmental pollution

“…Kraków was the first city in Poland where, due to the efforts concerning improving air quality, the total ban on burning coal, wood, and other solid fuels in house boilers, stoves, and fireplaces was introduced on September 1, 2019, which turned to be a pivotal step on the path towards improving the air quality in the city (Traczyk and Gruszecka-Kosowska 2020). The decisively positive attitude towards the aforementioned ban on burning solid fuels was expressed by 31% of the respondents and a rather positive attitude was expressed by 40.7%.…”