The consequences of poaching and anthropogenic change for forest elephants

Abstract

Poaching has devastated forest elephant populations (Loxodonta cyclotis), and their habitat is dramatically changing. The long-term effects of poaching and other anthropogenic threats have been well studied in savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana), but the impacts of these changes for Central Africa's forest elephants have not been discussed. We examine potential repercussions of This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. these threats and the related consequences for forest elephants in Central Africa by summarizing the lessons learned from savannah elephants and small forest elephant populations in West Africa.Forest elephant social organisation is little known than for savannah elephants, but the close evolutionary history with savannah elephants suggests that they will respond to anthropogenic threats in broadly similar ways. The loss of older, experienced individuals could disrupt ecological, social and population parameters. Severe reduction of elephant abundance within Central Africa's forests can alter plant communities and ecosystem functions. Poaching, habitat alterations and human population increase are probably compressing forest elephants into protected areas and increasing human-elephant conflict, negatively affecting their conservation. We encourage conservationists to look beyond forest elephant population decline and address these causes of change when developing conversation strategies. We propose research priorities, including assessing the effectiveness of the existing protected area network for landscape connectivity in the light of current industrial and infrastructure development. Longitudinal assessments of landscape changes on forest elephant sociality and behaviour are also needed. Finally, lessons learned from WestAfrican population loss and fragmentation should be used to inform strategies for land-use planning and managing the human-elephant interface.

Ecological consequences of forest elephant declines for Afrotropical forests

“…Despite the threat of extinction, African forest elephants remain understudied (Breuer et al 2016). Knowledge of their ecological impacts on tropical forests is limited, and most studies of forest elephants have been concentrated in several protected areas (Fig.…”

“…With elephants in crisis from poaching and anthropogenic change (Breuer et al 2016), the area of elephantfree forest is expanding in Central Africa, raising the question of how the reduction or loss of forest elephants will affect the diversity, composition, and structure of forests. We synthesized current knowledge of the effects of African forest elephants on tropical forests to infer how their loss may affect forest functioning.…”

“…Forest elephants are increasingly being compressed into well-protected parks and reserves (Breuer et al 2016). Assuming a minimum viable population of 100 elephants, with an average home range of 546.8 km 2 (Blake et al 2008), and an average overlap in home range of 78% (ANPN, unpub.…”

Movement patterns of forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis Matschie, 1900) in the Odzala‐Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo

“…A reduction in the abundance of forest elephants can alter plant communities and ecosystem function (Poulsen et al, ), which may have implications for the entire ecosystem due to cascading effects. Central Africa holds the main part of African forest elephant populations, although they are currently enduring a pronounced increase in poaching activities, particularly in Gabon and Congo, where the bulk of the entire population exist (Breuer, Maisels, & Fishlock, ; Gobush, Mutayoba, & Wasser, ; Maisels et al, ; Poulsen et al, ), but also in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, south‐eastern Cameroon and south‐western Central African Republic (Wasser et al, ). From 2006 until the present, a severe decline in elephant numbers has been detected due to a surge in ivory poaching to the extent that the increasing human–elephant conflict and habitat loss have been overshadowed in importance (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora—CITES, ).…”

“…Apart from the distribution of food and other key resources (Johnson, Kays, Blackwell, & Macdonald, ), mammal movement patterns are mainly determined by interactions between individual characteristics (e.g., maturity) and weather (Elliot, Cushman, Loveridge, Mtare, & Macdonald, ). In order to implement effective conservation and management plans, a greater understanding is required about elephant movements across large areas and over long periods (Breuer et al, ; Loarie, Aarde, & Pimm, ). Both the distribution and movement patterns of African savannah elephants ( Loxodonta africana Blumenbach, 1797) have been related to land cover type (Loarie et al, ; Young, Ferreira, & van Aarde, ), weather (i.e., temperature and rainfall; Birkett, Vanak, Muggeo, Ferreira, & Slotow, ; Bohrer et al, ) and elevation, slope and the presence of water bodies (natural or artificial; Graham, Douglas‐Hamilton, Adams, & Lee, ).…”