The Coronaviruses of Animals and Birds: Their Zoonosis, Vaccines, and Models for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2

Abstract

The viruses of the family Coronaviridae are ubiquitous in nature due to their existence in a wide spectrum of mammals and avian species. The coronaviruses, as RNA viruses, exist as quasispecies because of their high rate of mutations. This review elaborates on the pathogenesis and the developed vaccines of most of the ubiquitous coronavirus' diseases, mainly bovine, dromedary camel, porcine, feline, canine, and avian coronaviruses. The review emphasizes the significant setbacks in the full exploitation of most of the pathogenesis of the coronavirus' diseases, raising the prospect of effective vaccines for these diseases. The therapeutical trials for the treatment of SARS-CoV2 and the setbacks of these trials are also addressed. The review draws attention to the lessons accumulated from the large number of studies of the pathogenesis of animals and birds' coronaviruses and their vaccines, particularly the bovine, feline, and avian coronaviruses. The lessons drawn from the studies will have an immense influence on how the human coronaviruses pathogenesis and vaccine development will proceed. In addition, the extensive efforts to designate suitable animal models to study the lately emerged human coronaviruses are one of the invaluable contributions carried out by veterinarian scientists. Finally, factors and determinants that contribute to the possibility of emerging new coronavirus zoonotic disease are elaborated on and a call goes out to urge transdisciplinary collaboration in the implementation of the "One Health" concept.

COVID-19: a new emerging respiratory disease from the neurological perspective

“…The first defined coronavirus was the avian infectious bronchitis virus, which was isolated in 1937. This was followed by discovering another two animal pathogens in the 1940s, namely, the mouse hepatitis virus and the porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus (Alluwaimi et al 2020 ). Later on, in the 1960s, the first human coronavirus could be identified together with the porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus.…”

Using cross-species vaccination approaches to counter emerging infectious diseases

“…However, subunit, viral-vectored and other types of recombinant vaccines are in development. Some examples of licensed animal CoV vaccines and some key immunological observations are summarized below, with further details available in recent reviews of animal CoV vaccines 89 – 91 .…”

“…Key observations from veterinary use of CoV vaccines 89 – 91 : Virus-neutralizing antibodies directed to the surface spike (S) protein play a major role in protective immunity. The duration of vaccine-induced immunity is variable but can last for at least 12 months, with annual boosters required to maintain protective levels of immunity.…”

Placing the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Marine Ecological Context: Potential Risks for Conservation of Marine Air-Breathing Animals and Future Zoonotic Outbreaks

“…The current pandemic disease COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2, a coronavirus (CoV) classified in the genus Betacoronavirus (Wu et al, 2020). The main animal sources for zoonotic CoVs are bats and birds (also seabirds), which potentiate viral evolution and dissemination (Woo et al, 2012(Woo et al, , 2014Alluwaimi et al, 2020;El-Sayed and Kamel, 2021). SARS-CoV-2 is thought to have jumped from bats to humans through an intermediate host that remains unknown.…”