The COVID-19-diabetes mellitus molecular tetrahedron

Abstract

Accumulating molecular evidence suggests that insulin resistance, rather than SARS-CoV-2- provoked beta-cell impairment, plays a major role in the observed rapid metabolic deterioration in diabetes, or new-onset hyperglycemia, during the COVID-19 clinical course. In order to clarify the underlying complexity of COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus interactions, we propose the imaginary diabetes-COVID-19 molecular tetrahedron with four lateral faces consisting of SARS-CoV-2 entry via ACE2 (lateral face 1), the viral hijacking and replication (lateral face 2), acute inflammatory responses (lateral face 3), and the resulting insulin resistance (lateral face 4). The entrance of SARS-CoV-2 using ACE2 receptor triggers an array of multiple molecular signaling beyond that of the angiotensin II/ACE2-Ang-(1–7) axis, such as down-regulation of PGC-1 α/irisin, increased SREBP-1c activity, upregulation of CD36 and Sirt1 inhibition leading to insulin resistance. In another arm of the molecular cascade, the SARS-CoV-2 hijacking and replication induces a series of molecular events in the host cell metabolic machinery, including upregulation of SREBP-2, decrement in Sirt1 expression, dysregulation in PPAR-ɣ, and LPI resulting in insulin resistance. The COVID-19-diabetes molecular tetrahedron may suggest novel targets for therapeutic interventions to overcome insulin resistance that underlies the pathophysiology of worsening metabolic control in patients with diabetes mellitus or the new-onset of hyperglycemia in COVID-19.

Organokines in COVID-19: A Systematic Review

“…AMPK induces the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), which increases nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability and inhibits the palmitoylation of the SARS-CoV-2 S protein, leading to specific and immediate protection against SARS-CoV-2. Irisin also protects mitochondrial functions in endothelial cells principally by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, which can probably cover the infected individuals against the SARS-CoV-2-mediated fatal cardiovascular outcomes [21,[131][132][133][134].…”