The COVID-19 Disappeared: From Traumatic to Ambiguous Loss and the Role of the Internet for the Bereaved in Italy

Abstract

In Italy, in the very first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic there was a dramatic rise in mortality. However, families were forbidden because of lockdown regulations to be with their loved ones at their deathbeds or to hold funerals. This qualitative study examined bereavement experiences among family members, how they processed their grief, and how they used social networks in particular by uploading photographs during the working-through of bereavement. The sample was composed of 40 individuals aged 23–63 (80% women) from different Italian cities severely impacted by the virus, including a subgroup from the province of Bergamo, which was the city with the highest mortality rate during that time. All interviews were conducted by phone, Skype, or Zoom. Then, the transcriptions underwent a thematic analysis using Atlas.ti. The main themes that emerged were: abandonment anger and guilt, dehumanized disappeared, derealization and constant rumination, and social support and the importance of sharing photos on Facebook. Importantly, the use of social networks proved to be a valuable source of support and photographs were a powerful tool in facilitating the process of mourning by encouraging narration and sharing. Grief had a complex profile: on the one hand, it was traumatic and characterized by all the risk factors causing mourners to experience prolonged grief, but on the other, some features were similar to ambiguous loss (that occurs without closure and clear understanding) because of the impossibility to be with their relatives in their final moments. The possible relationships between ambiguous loss, the use of internet, and the risk of prolonged grief are discussed.

Uncertainty, shock and anger: Recent loss experiences of first‐wave COVID‐19 pandemic in Italy

“…A recently proposed model of uncertainty distress poses the ‘unknown‐ness’, which characterizes the experience of COVID‐19 losses, as the main cause of distress in mourners (Freeston, Tiplady, Mawn, Bottesi, & Thwaites, 2020 ). COVID‐19 deaths can be classified as ambiguous losses (Testoni et al, 2021 ) because the death occurs rapidly, unexpectedly for some, and farewell often must be made without the physical presence of the body (Bertuccio & Runion, 2020 ).…”

Reconstructing Social Relationships in a Post-Lockdown Suburban Area of Southern Italy Using Pastoral Counselling

“…Participants underwent in-depth interviews via phone, Skype, and Zoom, based on their preference, with an average of approximately 60 min per call. Interviews and subsequent analyses were conducted seeking to accommodate and respect subjective opinions and viewpoints as well as possible (Camic et al, 2003;Smith, 1995;Testoni et al, 2018bTestoni et al, , 2019aTestoni et al, , 2021a. The researchers used an inductive, bottom-up approach which enabled them, through an actively reflexive attitude, to identify analytical categories from the transcripts of the interviews, which became explicit as the analysis proceeded.…”

“…The researchers used an inductive, bottom-up approach which enabled them, through an actively reflexive attitude, to identify analytical categories from the transcripts of the interviews, which became explicit as the analysis proceeded. This approach allowed the emergence of unexpected themes from the texts which were not derived from predetermined hypotheses in the existing literature (Testoni et al, 2019a(Testoni et al, , 2021a. All conversations were recorded and transcribed verbatim.…”

Prognosticating COVID Therapeutic Responses: Ambiguous Loss and Disenfranchised Grief

“…The term thanatechnology ( 61 ) incorporates internet tools that can be utilized to commemorate the deceased in the form of a continuing bond and inadvertently become digitally immortal. Testoni et al ( 62 ) carried out a qualitative study in Italy during the pandemic to report the use of social networks to connect with others during the pandemic was useful in the mourning process. Features of ambiguous loss were present amongst those unable to be present with family, yet the connectedness was helpful.…”