The Development and Evaluation of the Stigma of Illegality and Marginalization of Latinxs (Siml) Scale

Abstract

Drawing on two online studies among predominantly U.S.-born and lawful permanent resident Latinxs, we developed a self-report scale intended to capture how discrimination related to perceived legal status, as well as perceptions of racial/ethnic marginalization of Latinxs in U.S. society, are experienced among a wide swath of the Latinx population. We also explore how these processes may be associated with psychological distress in this population. In line with the immigration scholarship that has identified a spillover effect of immigration enforcement and the racialization of legal status beyond the undocumented population, our exploratory factor analysis results from Study I (N = 355 Latinxs) collected in fall of 2013 revealed four factors among our study population: Fear of Deportation, Marginalization of Latinxs in U.S. Society, Marginalization Due to Perceived Illegality, and Fear Due to Perceived Illegality. Results from a confirmatory factor analysis from a separate study conducted in spring of 2016 (Study II; N = 295 Latinxs) provided evidence in support of the structure identified in Study I. Results also revealed evidence of the association between the Stigma of Illegality and Marginalization of Latinxs (SIML) subscales and psychological distress, measured as anxiety and depression. Implications of these findings are discussed.

When the United States says you do not belong: Suicide‐related thoughts and behaviors among immigrant young adults varying in immigration legal status

“…If interpreted within Joiner's (2005) lens, these findings suggest those interpersonal non-belonging-that is, not feeling accepted-partially explains the statistically significant relation between DACA/undocumented immigration legal status and SRTBs, whereas actual or legal danger in the form of harassment or fear of deportation do not act as mediators. It is important to note that for the DACA/ undocumented group, fear of harassment/harm and deportation did demonstrate a significant bivariate relation with SRTBs, and for the permanent immigrant group, fear of harassment/harm demonstrated a significant bivariate relation with SRTBs, echoing prior research Santos et al, 2021) linking fear of deportation to mental health problems, although these variables did not demonstrate significant mediation. Whereas these variables likely create stress which relates to mental health problems, including SRTBs, at the bivariate level, our findings suggest that the unique mechanism explaining the link between DACA/undocumented immigration status and SRTBs is interpersonal, in line with Joiner's (2005) theory.…”

An intersectional and social determinants of health framework for understanding Latinx psychological distress in 2020: Disentangling the effects of immigration policy and practices, the Trump Administration, and COVID-19-specific factors.

“…However, this sample was able to be interviewed before and during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, which might have been difficult or impossible for other surveys to accomplish during the national lockdown of Spring 2020. Although the analyses use a previously employed fear of deportation variable based on one survey item (Asad, 2020b; Lopez et al, 2013), a more nuanced operationalization to capture more specific fears about deportation and immigration enforcement activities, and stereotypes of presumed illegality would be preferable (Santos et al, 2021). Analyses of data sets with larger samples would be useful for further investigating how social categories such as citizenship and legality intersect and interact with gender to shape the mental health of Latinxs and other heterogeneous populations with substantial numbers of immigrants, such as Asians.…”

“…Another variable in December 2019 tapped into Latinxs’ perceptions of the Trump Administration’s impacts on Hispanics, and another is a more general evaluation of the situation of Hispanics in the country. Perceptions of anti-Hispanic discrimination are linked with psychological well-being, before and during the pandemic (Jamieson et al, 2021; Mata-Greve & Torres, 2020; Santos et al, 2021). A discrimination scale based on five items collected in 2019, such as reporting that the respondent “been called offensive names because you are Hispanic” and “personally experienced any other kind of discrimination or been treated unfairly because of your Hispanic background” was coded consistently (i.e., higher scores were more discrimination) then summed and included in the analysis.…”

“…We also accounted for respondents’ own citizenship and legal status, also collected in December 2019 (Wave 58). Although this is an individual-level operationalization, citizenship and legal status are socially constructed categories that reflect the larger national immigration policy context (De Genova, 2004; Santos et al, 2021). Replicating Asad’s (2020b) conceptualization using earlier waves of the National Survey of Latinos, four binary categories were created as follows: (a) U.S.-born citizens were respondents born in the United States or other U.S. territories or those born to U.S. citizen parents, (b) naturalized citizens were immigrants who report that they are citizens, (c) legal permanent residents were immigrants reporting that they have valid green cards, and (d) remaining immigrants are classified as “likely undocumented.” Although this latter residual category may have captured immigrants who could be currently legally present, as Asad (2020b) points out, their tenuousness in the United States amounts to a vulnerable status.…”

Social justice activism and critical agency among undocumented students: Coping mediators between discrimination and depression.

“…Research also suggests that in this context of systemic and structural challenges, the undocumented students may be at risk for developing socioemotional concerns during college (Gonzales et al, 2013). Part of the systemic issues experienced by undocumented students include ongoing discrimination, which is linked to greater mental health distress, including depression (Esses, 2021; Santos et al, 2021). This is concerning given recent research suggesting that most immigrants report experiencing discrimination (Pourat et al, 2021).…”