The Development of the Distinction between Perceiving and Memorizing

Memory Development Between 2 and 20

“…One of the earliest studies with an intentional versus incidental instructional manipulation was reported by Appel et al (1972). They observed no differences in the bebaviors of prescboolers who were provided intentional versus incidental learning instructions (a result generally comparable to some of the Soviet data discussed in Chapter 1).…”

“…Appel et al 's (1972) initial study of the ••differentiation hypotbesis" stimulated a number of follow-up studies (e.g., Galbraith, Olsen, Duerden, & Harris, 1982;Yussen, Gagne, Gargiulo, & Kunen, 1974;Yussen, Kunen, & Buss, 1975). In contrast to Appel et al (1972), there was clear differentiation between intentional and incidental learning situations tbroughout childhood in most of these followup investigations, most critically, even with preschoolers. Baker-Ward, Omstein, and Holden (1984) offered especially convincing evidence that preschoolers consciously memorize.…”

The spacing effect in 4- to 9-year-old children

“…Fortunately, the use of intervening items to prevent rehearsal does not appear to be necessary with young children. Although very young children can use nonverbal behaviors (e.g., pointing, touching, looking) to improve memory (Acredolo, Pick, & Olsen, 1975;Ryan, Hegion, & Flavell, 1970;Siegel, Allik, & Herman, 1976;Wellman, Ritter, & Flavell, 1975;Yussen, 1974), children younger than approximately 8 years of age seem unable to use verbalrehearsal spontaneously as an effective strategy to enhance memory (Appel et al, 1972;Flavell et al, 1966;Hagen & Kingsley, 1968;Naus & Ornstein, 1983;Ornstein, Medin, Stone, & Naus, 1985;Ornstein & Naus, 1978). If young children do not typically engage in effective verbal rehearsal, then the experimental manipulation of using intervening items to prevent rehearsal during successive presentations is unnecessary.…”

Changing Conception of Sources of Memory Development

“…In other cases, differences exist in metamemory performance, without corresponding differ ences in memory performance. For example, in the study by Appel et al [1972], although some 7-year-olds were observed to respond differently to items that were presented with the instruction 'memorize for future recall' as opposed to the instruction 'look carefully at the items' (children named the stimuli twice as often under the 'memorize' than the 'look' instruction), their recall performance for the two instructions did not differ. The same interpretation provided above for the reverse situation can be used here as well: younger children can be planful, but they do not have available the more potent strategies (assum ing that naming the items twice is a less ade quate strategy).…”