The Direct Testing Effect Is Pervasive in Action Memory: Analyses of Recall Accuracy and Recall Speed

Abstract

Successful retrieval from memory is a desirably difficult learning event that reduces the recall decrement of studied materials over longer delays more than restudying does. The present study was the first to test this direct testing effect for performed and read action events (e.g., “light a candle”) in terms of both recall accuracy and recall speed. To this end, subjects initially encoded action phrases by either enacting them or reading them aloud (i.e., encoding type). After this initial study phase, they received two practice phases, in which the same number of action phrases were restudied or retrieval-practiced (Exp. 1–3), or not further processed (Exp. 3; i.e., practice type). This learning session was ensued by a final cued-recall test both after a short delay (2 min) and after a long delay (1 week: Exp. 1 and 2; 2 weeks: Exp. 3). To test the generality of the results, subjects retrieval practiced with either noun-cued recall of verbs (Exp. 1 and 3) or verb-cued recall of nouns (Exp. 2) during the intermediate and final tests (i.e., test type). We demonstrated direct benefits of testing on both recall accuracy and recall speed. Repeated retrieval practice, relative to repeated restudy and study-only practice, reduced the recall decrement over the long delay, and enhanced phrases’ recall speed already after 2 min, and this independently of type of encoding and recall test. However, a benefit of testing on long-term retention only emerged (Exp. 3), when prolonging the recall delay from 1 to 2 weeks, and using different sets of phrases for the immediate and delayed final tests. Thus, the direct testing benefit appears to be highly generalizable even with more complex, action-oriented stimulus materials, and encoding manipulations. We discuss these results in terms of the distribution-based bifurcation model.

Putting action into testing: Enacted retrieval benefits long-term retention more than covert retrieval

“…The retrieval enactment effect is consistent with recent evidence by Kubik et al (2019) demonstrating that learning benefits of both testing (vs. restudy) and enactment (vs. verbal encoding) emerged independently from each other. That is, a direct testing effect emerged also with enacted action materials during the study and restudy phases.…”

“…In addition, the few prior studies on the retrieval production effect employed quite diverse experimental conditions to examine the effect of the response format. For example, these studies used different memory measures (cued recall, Putnam & Roediger, 2013; free recall, Smith et al, 2013), different delays (15 minutes, Smith et al, 2013, Experiment 1; 2 days, Putnam & Roediger, 2013; 1 week, Jönsson et al, 2014), different testing-effect paradigms (e.g., with test-ensuing restudy, Jönsson et al, 2014; Putnam & Roediger, 2013; without test-ensuing restudy, Smith et al, 2013), and different materials (categorised words, Smith et al, 2013; word pairs, Jönsson et al, 2014; Putnam & Roediger, 2013; action phrases, Kubik et al, 2019; key-term definitions, Tauber et al, 2018). In sum, the different forms of productive encoding ensuing retrieval (enactment vs. classical verbal pronunciation) and these methodological differences might moderate whether an added benefit beyond retrieval is produced.…”

Memory Skill: The Proceduralization of Declarative Memory Through Retrieval Practice

“…Most importantly, the measure of goodness of fit to this power function was associated with short-and long-term final recall success suggesting a positive relationship between the level of automatization and memory retention. Furthermore, at final recall, response latency was longer in the restudy than it was in the retest condition (this finding was later replicated by others, e.g., Kubik et al, 2018;Marián et al, 2018), indicating that the accessibility of tested elements was easier and probably automatic. Altogether these results point to the conclusion that the automatization of retrieval is a core component of the testing effect phenomenon and lay the basis of a new explanatory framework to better understand the nature of retrieval-based learning and its long-term efficiency.…”

The underconfidence-with-practice effect in action memory: The contribution of retrieval practice to metacognitive monitoring

“…Retrieval practice has various beneficial effects on memory, specifically on long-term retention (Kubik et al, 2018(Kubik et al, , 2020Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a;for comprehensive overviews, see McDermott, 2021;Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a; see also Kubik, Gaschler, et al, 2021). For current purposes, we focus on the indirect and metacognitive benefits of retrieval practice.…”