The distinction between provoked and unprovoked aggression in toddlerhood, and associations with empathy‐related processes

Abstract

Physical aggression in toddlerhood has received considerable attention in the past 20 years. The underlying theme has been that toddlers behave aggressively due to not yet being able to regulate their frustration. However, there is some evidence to suggest that early aggression can occur for other reasons. In this study, we tested the distinction between provoked and unprovoked aggression in toddlerhood, and examined whether different empathy-related processes would show unique associations with each type of aggression. Participants were 200 mothers of children aged 15-21 months (M age = 18.32 months, SD = 1.75) who completed measures of provoked and unprovoked aggression, and empathyrelated processes. We found that the two-factor aggression model fit the data well. In addition, when controlling for the overlap between other-oriented empathy and personal distress, other-oriented empathy demonstrated a negative association with unprovoked aggression, and personal distress showed a positive link with provoked aggression. Our findings underscore the importance of studying early physical aggression in a more nuanced way to better understand different functions it may serve in toddlerhood.

Provoked and unprovoked aggression in toddlerhood: Evaluating measurement invariance and latent means across gender, age, and time

“…Also, in line with our earlier findings (Peets & Vecchio, 2023), boys demonstrated higher levels of unprovoked aggression at both time points. Although there were no gender differences in provoked aggression at Time 1 (when toddlers were around 18 or 24 months of age), boys also showed higher levels of frustration-based aggression at Time 2.…”

“…Some studies suggest that gender differences emerge slightly before or at the second birthday (Alink et al, 2006; Baillargeon et al, 2007), others conclude that gender differences do not clearly emerge until preschool years when boys display it more frequently than girls (Keenan & Shaw, 1997). Although not being able to say definitively at what age gender differences emerge for the first time, our findings do suggest that boys' greater reliance on aggression appears earlier for unprovoked than provoked aggression, and already by 18 months of age (gender differences were not dependent on the age group; see Supporting Information: Material) or even before that (Peets & Vecchio, 2023). It is possible that this gender difference reflects, at least partially, differences in how young boys and girls tend to engage with their environment (see also Else‐Quest et al, 2006).…”

“…Although not being able to say definitively at what age gender differences emerge for the first time, our findings do suggest that boys' greater reliance on aggression appears earlier for unprovoked than provoked aggression, and already by 18 months of age (gender differences were not dependent on the age group; see Supporting Information: Material) or even before that (Peets & Vecchio, 2023). It is possible that this gender difference reflects, at least partially, differences in how young boys and girls tend to engage with their environment (see also Else-Quest et al, 2006).…”

“…Some researchers have witnessed boys' greater aggressiveness already around the age of 2 (Alink et al, 2006; Baillargeon et al, 2007), others have not found any gender differences at such a young age (Dahl, 2016; Hay et al, 2000, 2021; Hay, Hurst, et al, 2011). In our prior study (Peets & Vecchio, 2023), 15–21‐month‐old boys displayed greater levels of unprovoked aggression than girls, but there were no gender differences in provoked aggression. We reasoned that early gender differences in unprovoked aggression might reflect boys' greater biological readiness to behave aggressively.…”

“…Without establishing measurement invariance, though, there is no certainty that the same construct is assessed between groups or across measurement points (Brown, 2006; Putnick & Bornstein, 2016). We addressed these shortcomings by evaluating the measurement equivalence of the Provoked and Unprovoked Aggression Questionnaire (PUAQ; Peets & Vecchio, 2023). This parent‐report measure was recently developed to tap the heterogeneity of aggressive acts in toddlerhood.…”